Psychology of Music

Musical improvisation is a widely used practice within many musical genres and cultures. But although there have been several studies on the experience and psychological benefits of music listening and music making, few have focused specifically on musical improvisation outside the practices of music therapy and jazz improvisation. In this study, we aim to explore the phenomenology of musical improvisation to find the possible psychological motives and everyday mental health functions related to it. Semi-structured interviews were recorded with 11 musicians (2 female/10 male, mean age 27.8 years) and analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The analysis found two master themes (with five emergent themes): self-actualization (with need for growth, self-expression, and peak experiences) and intersubjectivity (with receptivity and rapport). In this empirical study, we found that musical improvisation provides a medium for self-expression and self-exploration, and by creating an intersubjective field within the improvisers and listeners. These motives also reliably trigger peak and optimal experiences, such as flow state.

Earworms are a form of involuntary musical imagery which are in many ways similar to musical hallucinations and obsessions present in clinical disorders, such as schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Previous research has shown relationships between earworms and schizotypy as well as subclinical OCD. The aim of this study was to investigate these associations in a Hungarian sample of 4301 participants. We hypothesized that (1) there would be significant correlations between aspects of schizotypy, subclinical OCD and earworms; (2) higher scores on either the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory – Revised (OCI-R) or the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire – Brief Revised (SPQ-BR) would be associated with more negative attitudes toward earworm experiences, as measured with the Negative valence factor of the Involuntary Musical Imagery Scale (IMIS), as well as (3) longer and more frequent earworm episodes. Bayesian Kendall’s tau-b correlations showed weak relationships between several aspects of both schizotypy and subclinical OCD, and introspection related to earworms and earworm-related movement. Structural equation models showed that subclinical OCD had a weak, positive association with negative attitudes toward earworms, while schizotypy had a positive association with earworm frequency, earworm-related movement, and earworm-related introspection. These results partially support previous findings, and provide new, relevant information about the associations of personality traits and earworms in a large sample.

Despite a growing literature suggesting that the lyrics of music may have an emotional effect, there are as of yet no studies examining which elements of lyrics influence emotional experience. The present study explored the emotional effect of lyrics sung without a melodic accompaniment, examining whether the vocal expression or the semantic content of the lyrics had a greater influence on emotional state. A sample of 170 participants were presented four variants of sung lyrics, representing all possible combinations of vocal expression (happy; sad) and semantic content (happy; sad) condition, with emotional state being measured using the Brief Mood Introspection Scale (BMIS) following each presentation. A 2 × 2 repeated-measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) revealed that, after controlling for familiarity with the song, both the emotional valence of the vocal expression and the semantic content influenced emotional experience, though the vocal expression did so to a greater magnitude. Therefore, the vocal expression of lyrics may have the dominant effect on emotions, though the semantic content still has a minor influence.

Experimental research on musical emotion has identified clear links between specific aspects of musical structure and emotional responses. However, growing recognition of changes in the affective meaning of specific cues over time raises intriguing questions about the degree to which these links hold across historical eras. In particular, the traditional focus on compositional principles from common-practice period music (ca. 1600–1900) might not capture how emotion is perceived in later compositions. Here we explore perceived emotion ratings in a set of 24 preludes by Dmitri Shostakovich (Op. 34), comparing the effects of cues in his preludes vs. those by Bach and Chopin. We find that prosodic cues (i.e., pitch height, timing) play a stronger role than mode in these pieces. Because music theorists widely recognize Shostakovich’s music as tonal, this result reflects not his abandonment of mode, but rather his decision to use it differently than his predecessors. This provides an important perspective complementing a growing body of research using score-based analyses to explore historical changes in the “meaning” of specific cues. Our findings illustrate how modern compositions can provide novel insight into cues’ historically changing roles in emotional communication.

Melodic intonation is generally considered a central expressive means in musical performance. In Western classical music, relationships between intonation in perception and performance have shown to be less straightforward than one might expect. In this study, we investigated leading-tone intonation for solo violin, as perceived and performed by six accomplished violinists. We selected excerpts from classical violin repertoire, each of which included ascending semitone intervals leading up to tonally stable tones. Each violinist performed the excerpts and participated in a listening study and a semi-structured interview. Prior recordings of the excerpts, manipulated in terms of the pitch of the leading tones, were used in the listening study to obtain information about each participant’s accepted perceptual range of leading-tone intonation. The violinists’ preferred semitone sizes were between 80 and 90 cents, on average, both in their perceptual preferences and their performance practice. This group average appeared to approximate the “standard” of leading-tone intonation that the participants consistently mentioned in their verbal protocols. However, the perceptual preferences and the performance intonation also varied both within and between individuals. Given the overall sharp standard of leading-tone intonation, even an equal-tempered leading tone might sometimes represent an expressive gesture in the violinists’ artistic practice.

This article investigates the role of early experiences in shaping the musical identities of 15 individuals with a diverse range of self-reported musical skills, ranging from none to professional level. Participant interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed for emerging and superordinate themes. Topics covered in the interviews included participants’ relationship with music, significant early musical memories, and experiences with music-making (particularly early experiences). Twelve of the 15 participants also attended a series of music workshops in either Italy (Calabria) or Scotland (Glasgow). The workshops were focused on integrating both musically experienced and inexperienced participants in collaborative musical activities. Analysis revealed 13 emergent themes that were grouped into three superordinate themes: early exposure and family influence; experiences with music education; participation and playfulness. These themes highlight how participants’ early experiences of music are remembered in detail and represent important moments in the participants’ lives. Early listening experiences were reported as positive and linked with family memories. Early musical education experiences were often reported as negative leading to lifelong self-beliefs of being ‘unmusical’. Results suggest that positive experience with musical engagement can overcome the debilitating effects of early negative experience of music, highlighting musical identities as dynamic (amenable to change) and situated (context-dependent).

Musical performances require significant physical effort and musculoskeletal injuries are an integral part of musicians’ careers. The physical strains of performances are often accompanied by psychological stresses that can accelerate the development of particular physical injuries. This study aimed to understand the protective or deleterious effects of motivation, self-efficacy and rumination. We conducted a cross-sectional study of data collected retrospectively from 121 musical artists. Participants completed sociodemographic, medical, and psychological questionnaires. The artists were divided into previously injured (n = 66, 54.5%) and not previously injured (n = 55, 45.5%) groups. Significant inter-group differences were found for age (p < .05), years of performing (p < .01), and hours of practising (p < .001). No differences were found for sex and total musical practice. Overall, 74.1% of the periods lost to injury lasted under 30 days. Almost all injuries (98.4%) involved the upper limbs or trunk, most frequently hands (15.3%) and wrists (15.3%). Muscles (39.7%) and tendons (26.5%) were the usual tissues damaged. The previously injured and not previously injured groups showed no differences regarding the dimensions of motivation (p > .05), self-efficacy (p > .05) or rumination. However, there were significant inter-group differences for the subdimensions of integrated motivation (p < .05), introjected motivation (p < .05), and the intrusiveness of repetitive negative thinking (p < .05). The present study’s epidemiological data highlighted the need to provide musicians with better support for their physical preparedness. Promoting more comprehensive care for this population and improving their biopsychosocial well-being could improve their ability to manage stress and injuries and implement effective coping strategies.

Music performance anxiety (MPA) is a common experience among musicians of all ages. However, young pianists have indicated receiving limited performance training or effective MPA support from their teachers. As these findings do not reflect teacher perspectives, this study was designed to provide a fuller picture of piano training. Two hundred thirty-seven piano teachers from across Canada and the United States participated in an online survey, comprising both open- and closed-ended questions, to gauge their pedagogy regarding performance training, perfectionism, and MPA. While the majority of participants reported that students have expressed MPA concerns to them, many noted that they only discuss the issue when students raise it. Virtually all teachers reported that they teach students what to do on stage and how to address performance challenges—in particular memory lapses. Most believe there is a distinction between teaching to play and teaching to perform, yet only 58% said they offer studio classes and 37% hold dress rehearsals. Participants noted a focus on excellence, not perfection, in their pedagogy, but many acknowledged that perfection is an expectation within the field. Comparisons with previous findings on piano students and implications for educators are discussed.

The availability of effective and timely interventions targeting the core features of debilitating performance anxiety (PA) is necessary to support musicians across the lifespan. The aim of this review was to provide an updated search of the research on treatments for PA in musicians and conduct a meta-analysis for available randomised controlled trials (RCTs). A systematic search identified 57 published articles on interventions targeting a reduction in PA symptoms in musicians. Results identified a range of intervention types, with cognitive-behavioural-based therapies most studied. Quality appraisal identified a low–moderate risk of bias, with a lack of detailed information on study design and participant awareness noted as contributors to studies falling in the moderate range. A total of 16 RCTs were included in the meta-analysis, which revealed treatment is more effective than control. Moderators of intervention delivery (individual or group) and age of participants (adolescents, college students, or a mixture of ages) were not significant. Future studies are recommended to be grounded in a theoretical model with the intervention targeting core contributing and maintaining factors, with a focus on greater methodological rigour. Comparing intervention types in future meta-analysis will aid in supporting one treatment above or equal to another.