Perceptual and Motor Skills

Simple verbal associates were obtained to words depicting 10 geometrical forms in one sample of 84 undergraduates, while a separate group of 84 was presented with pictures corresponding to the verbal labels and asked to draw the first form which came to mind. A high degree of commonality between the two association tasks indicates frequent use of a common mediational process. Internal analyses indicate that the common mediator is probably verbal, although there are also associational processes unique to pictorial or verbal stimuli. The pattern of results seems to have implications for understanding the nature of stimulus encoding as a function of the nature of the stimulus input.

8 college observers using interval recording procedures to record classroom behaviors of preschool children produced substantially higher interobserver reliabilities when the intervals were cued by pretaped voice than by a clock-scanning method. The superiority of vocal announcements obtained both for 4 observers initially trained with the vocal method and for 4 other observers later transferred to this method following the use of the clock method. Conversely, the high reliabilities produced by the 4 observers, trained with the vocal method, fell when they were shifted to the clock method.

Two rhesus monkeys were trained as operators in a compensatory manual control system similar to systems used in human studies. Training procedures used to shape compensatory tracking behavior included a multiple shock-avoidance technique, the gradual introduction of the system input, and sharpening visual stimulus control of tracking behavior. Time-on-target scores for the monkeys were 95% to 98% while responding to three different frequency bandwidths of the system input. As frequency bandwidth increased, no significant increase in error was noted, the monkeys returned the target element to the center target area at increasing rates, and the number of shocks delivered to each subject remained low. Bode plots and stripouts of input, output, and error signals resembled those typically obtained in human studies. Through extrapolations based on nonhuman primate performance, the conclusion was that the task development and training procedures of the present study provided a means for estimating human performance in manual control systems under environmental stress or in hazardous environments.

On the basis of a defensive model of attributive projection, it was hypothesized that subjects with high self-esteem would project more acknowledged negative traits onto a favorable other than would subjects with low self-esteem. It was also hypothesized that acknowledged negative traits would lead to more anxiety and would therefore be projected more than acknowledged positive or neutral traits. 52 college students described a favorable other and themselves according to a list of trait-rating scales. They also judged whether each of the traits was positive, negative, or neutral. There was a significant positive correlation of .34 between self and other ratings. Although attributive projection occurred, further analyses did not support the hypotheses. Acknowledged positive traits were projected significantly more than acknowledged negative traits.

Eye dominance tests (24 comparisons) varied markedly in agreement with each other for 225 consecutive screening evaluations (5 yr. to 55 yr.) in a reading clinic.

The Personal Attribute Inventory is a scale that should prove applicable to a broad range of interpersonal assessments. There are 50 positive and 50 negative adjectives from Gough's (1952) Adjective Check List from which subjects are instructed to select 30 which are most descriptive of the target group or person in question. Using the term “Negroes” as the target stimulus on three different occasions, this scale's test-retest reliabilities were .904, .94, and .95. Its criterion-related validity with the Westie scale was .46 (p < .001) and with the Ewens checklist was .55 and .66 (p < .01, < .001, respectively). Further application is needed to assess the usefulness of this procedure.

49 of 50 newborn infants, when presented with a strong auditory stimulus, showed significant increases in EMG potential. The infant who failed initially responded when rechecked in 1 mo. The results suggest it may be possible to develop an EMG-Audiometric process which could be employed in screening hearing of newborn infants.

The autokinetic movement responses of 10 American, 10 Chinese, and 10 Iranian students to religious symbols and control stimuli were measured. The hypothesis of differential direction response as a function of the target shapes was supported. Iranian students did show a pattern of responding significantly different from the American and Chinese.

Two explanations for verbal facilitation of class-inclusion reasoning have been suggested. One attributes the effect to differences in the interpretation of linguistic cues. The other considers the effect to be a product of distracting perceptual cues. 44 male and 44 female, third and fifth grade Mexican-American children categorized as either English- or Spanish-language dominant were presented both verbal and pictorial type class-inclusion questions. Half of the children were tested in their dominant language, the other half in their subordinate language. Results indicate that the verbal-type questions produced more correct responses than the pictorial questions. It is concluded that verbal facilitation is due to absence of distracting perceptual cues.

An experimental investigation of the influence of self-disclosure on friendship was conducted by manipulating the level of self-disclosure. 65 same-sex pairs were randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions, intimate self-disclosure, nonintimate self-disclosure and control (no disclosure); the treatment conditions were independently verified by judges' ratings. One member of each pair was randomly selected as the confederate or first speaker and was provided with a list of 7 conversation topics. There were no lists provided in the control condition. The dependent variable, level of friendship as measured by the Acquaintance Description Form (Wright, 1969), was rated before and after Ss engaged in self-disclosure, and the influence of the experimental conditions on friendship scores was assessed by analyses of co-variance. The results showed that the general level of friendship increased as a function of intimate and nonintimate self-disclosure; however, intimate disclosure produced greater increases in friendship than nonintimate disclosure. The unique influence of self-disclosure on male friendship patterns is discussed.

The reliability of the Bender was investigated for 144 first-grade children from a suburban school district. The test-retest interval ranged from 9 through 14 days. The Koppitz scoring system was used; reliability coefficients were determined for errors of distortion, rotation, integration, and perseveration as well as for the total score. The total time to reproduce the designs was also included. Magnitudes of the reliability estimates for the separate error categories were too small to justify interpreting scores individually. The reliability estimate for total working time was comparable to that for the total Koppitz score. Working time may be a stable dimension of Bender performance suitable for use in research.

20 profoundly deaf and 20 normal hearing children from ages 10 to 13 were compared as to their ability to locate visually the position of apparent vertical and the apparent location of the longitudinal axis of the body under erect and 30° left and right body-tilt. Both deaf and normal hearing children were able accurately to locate a rod to the apparent visual vertical, but deaf children were significantly more accurate in aligning a rod to their apparent body-position than hearing children. This finding is discussed from both a learning view and from a hypothesis of developmental lag.

Three groups of 15 subjects each were exposed to 3 different combinations of intermediate (staging) altitudes and exposure times, and were then tested for visual target detection capability at a final altitude of 4300 m. All groups with staging exposure performed better at altitude and had fewer symptoms of acute mountain sickness than a fourth group which went directly to 4300 m altitude from sea level. The data showed that task factors of both viewing distance and degree of peripheral placement of the target significantly influenced detection time within all groups regardless of variations in exposure to altitude.

49 soldier-observers viewed 40 slides in which a stimulus soldier was identically posed in a constant background but at different viewing distances (175, 200, 225, 250, and 275 ft.) and viewing angles (14° and 21°, left and right) from the observer. Accuracy of target detection was compared with viewers' scores on the Hidden Shapes Test and the Maudsley Personality Inventory. Field-dependence-independence and extraversion-introversion were determined to be separately and jointly related to accuracy of target detection. The major effects were attributable to the notably poorer performance of Ss characterized as field-dependent extraverts.

The EKG was recorded while Ss differentially responded to auditory or visual stimuli in a reaction time task. The EKG record was analyzed by dividing each R-R interval encompassing a stimulus presentation into 9 equal phases. Reaction times were determined as a function of the phase encompassing stimulus onset while movement times were determined for the phase in which the response was initiated. Only reaction time significantly varied with cardiac cycle, with reactions during the second phase being slower than later phases.

The information-processing performance of 12 retarded and 12 nonretarded adolescents was compared. Using reaction time keys each subject classified color words, secondary color words, non-color words, nonsense syllables, and stick figures according to the color of ink in which each stimulus was presented. Reaction time of the nonretarded subjects was significantly faster than that of retarded subjects; color words and secondary color words significantly interfered with processing performance as measured by correct reaction time. The results indicate that the Stroop task interferes with response initiation rather than memory retrieval and that the locus of interference for retarded and nonretarded subjects is equivalent.

Using a semantic differential to assess person perception, a non-random sample of 30 female university students recorded their impressions of a number of pictures of female stimulus persons. The pictures represented a systematic pairing of faces of varying levels of attractiveness, and clothed bodies of varying levels of attractiveness. The results of a 3 × 3 Latin square analysis of variance showed facial attractiveness to be a significant factor in the perception of physical attractiveness of the total unit, social and professional happiness, and social desirability. Attractiveness of the clothed body exerted a significant effect in the perception of bourgeois orientation. Pearson productmoment correlation results indicated that as level of perceived physical attractiveness increased, so did the perception of social and professional happiness and social desirability.

6 left-handed females scored significantly below 60 right-handed females on a test of spatial visualization (p < .005). 13 left-handed males showed a higher mean score than 33 right-handed males on the spatial test, although this difference was not statistically significant. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the left cerebral hemisphere is of greater relative importance to spatial functioning in females than males.

Following assessment of eye color, a total of 108 college students (33 males and 75 females) estimated changes in sizes of standardized blocks while blindfolded. Subjects were classified as perceptual augmenters, moderates or reducers as a function of their overestimation, accurate estimation, or underestimation, respectively, of the sizes of the blocks. A significant interaction of gender by perceptual reactance appeared, with augmenting males being rated the most dark-eyed and augmenting females being rated the most light-eyed. Interpretation of the findings was made in terms of attention to relevant cues.

15 females with glasses tended to defend against relatively low self-perceptions of attractiveness by de-emphasizing the influence of their eyes on facial beauty.

Male and female subjects (n = 72) experienced a high, moderate or low degree of initial success on an anagram task with half believing that only effort was required for success and the other half that only high ability was necessary. The findings suggest that manipulations of causal attributions used to test Weiner's attribution theory may be confounded with ego-involvement.

60 black and white boys and girls, ages 5, 8 and 11 yr., were shown four pictures depicting conflict, and four pictures depicting cooperation between a black and a white figure. They told stories that included the attribution of helpfulness and blameworthy behavior to one of the two figures. No age trends were found, and helpfulness was not attributed on a racial basis. However, females, particularly white females, blame their own race, while boys do not make racially based blame attributions. The traditional female sex-role of accepting blame in resolving conflict situations may be involved. Methodologically, studies of racial attitudes should concentrate on specific attributions in emotionally arousing situations.

Hypnotic anesthesia induced in a subject's entire arm produced a decrement in proprioceptive abilities as assessed by the inability to locate the nose position with the forefinger of the anesthetized arm. The magnitude of the decrement was positively related to level of hypnotic susceptibility.

The Johnson-Kenney (J-K) Screening Readiness Test was cross-validated on a sample of 52 beginning first grade students. The 10 J-K subtests accounted for 31% of the variance in teachers' year-end ratings of these students on the Myklebust Pupil Rating Scale. Alternatively, five composite J-K factor predictors, based on factor score coefficients from the data of the original sample, accounted for 63% of the variance in this present study's teacher ratings, with all five factors (Spatial Relations, Counting/Auditory Comprehension, Visual-Motor Coordination, Perceiving Relationships, and Color Recognition) contributing significantly to the prediction. This factor analysis also provided evidence for the validity of a multidimensional construct, “first grade readiness.” The present instrument might be improved quantitatively by eliminating some subtests and increasing the number of items in the remaining subtests. However, caution should be exercised in eliminating valuable qualitative behavioral data contained in the quantitatively less predictive subtests. The J-K test does appear to be of practical value in forecasting certain learning difficulties in first graders.

Two groups of 20 subjects made comparative judgments about either the similarity between the subject and predicate nouns linked in a metaphor or the goodness of a metaphor as a figure of speech. Psychological scaling of metaphorical propositions indicated that semantic decisions were internally consistent. Adjectives which reduced category (predicate noun) size in a proposition increased similarity and figural goodness. When two adjectives were used to modify subject and predicate nouns, similarity and figural goodness were higher in comparison to metaphors containing only one adjective. In addition, the number of highly salient semantic features shared by nouns was varied over replications. Nouns which shared two salient features were judged more similar and formed better figures of speech than those sharing only one feature. Results were discussed as evidence for comparison of features in the comprehension of semantic relations.

The present paper extends current research on pattern recognition to investigate the effects of density of noise field and delay (off) times. The results indicate major effects due to density of the noise field, on time and off time. Recognition initially declined as the density of the interference increased, then subsequently leveled off at higher interference levels. The effect of density of noise field on recognition was not consistent across all levels of either on time or off time. There was a wide range of processing-ability among Ss. Some subjects were capable of high levels of performance for very fast input rates. There was a high degree of consistency among Ss in the relative difficulty of the letters.

Data from 56 subjects in Grades 4 to 12 only able to wink one eye indicated that the non-winking eye was used as the dominant one in tests of monocular and binocular sighting.

EEG recordings were obtained from 10 normal and 10 aphasic adults while they participated in behavioral tasks and a no performance condition. Interhemispheric asymmetry and average activity at 5 to 15 Hz in each hemisphere were compared between groups and among tasks. Asymmetry during behavioral tasks did not differ significantly between groups or among tasks, however, aphasic patients showed a significant decrease in average activity at 5 to 15 Hz on the behavioral tasks compared with the level for a no performance condition. Test-retest reliability was poor for asymmetry but acceptable for average activity at 5 to 15 Hz. Finally, asymmetry was significantly related with severity of aphasia.

12 adolescent retarded boys and 12 younger third-grade boys of equivalent mental age observed sequential flashes of light and made judgments of numerosity. Durations of successive flashes were 300, 500, 700, and 900 msec. in trains of 1 to 15 flashes. Over six daily sessions, subgroups receiving information about accuracy after each trial made fewer errors, and subgroups receiving none made more errors. The linear trend interaction of knowledge of results with IQ was significant, with performance of the nonretarded boys decreasing to the level of the retarded boys in the no-feedback condition. With feedback, the rate of decrease in error over sessions was similar for both levels of IQ. The results indicate a substantial effect of knowledge of results in improving accuracy of counting by retarded and nonretarded children, this effect being relatively greater for the latter group.

A number of bilaterally symmetrical motor patterns, preformed in their basic topography at brainstem levels, are most efficiently guided through unilateral input. This concept is related to the lateralization of speech.

A paradoxical feature of Weber's law is considered. The law presumably states a principle of psychophysical relativity, yet a pre-relativistic physical measurement model has been traditionally employed. Classical physics, Einsteinian relativity and a newer interpretation of the relativity concept are discussed. Their relation to psychophysics is examined. The domain wherein Weber's law breaks down is noted as suggestively similar to that in which physicists report relativistic effects. A tentative hypothesis is offered to stimulate further thought about a more meaningful integration of psychophysics with modern physical science.

A version of the Word-Finding Test was constructed for use with children. This test was administered to 40 normal children and 20 children with learning disabilities who had been matched for age and WISC Full Scale IQ. The results indicated that the test is appropriate for use with 9- and 10-yr.-old children, and that performance distinguishes between normal and learning disabled children of these ages at a high level of confidence. There were also some indications that the mode of approach to the test exhibited by the children with learning disabilities differed qualitatively from that of the normal children.

Ascending lingual vibrotactile thresholds at 250 Hz were obtained for four groups of normal-speaking adult subjects. Stimulus durations were varied for each respective group. Threshold values plotted as a function of stimulus duration indicated a temporal summation function occurring up to 200 msec. Findings are discussed in terms of underlying peripheral receptors and some implications for using summation measures as a basis for identifying oral sensory disorders.

Lateral eye-shift in preschool children was related to the use of more nouns in description by 14 right-shifters, more adjectives by 19 left-shifters. Results suggest that differences in hemispheric activity may lead to differential language use.

This article explores the possibility of measuring esthetic sensitivity by means of the ability to judge whether paintings are or are not by the same artist (Westland, 1964). Unlike the conventional tests of esthetic sensitivity this measurement is based on answers that are right or wrong in a factual sense and not right or wrong on the basis of a consensus of opinion. The “test” is constructed such that it can be scored using information theory. This method allows us to include the size of the error in the score. The “test” differentiated 30 subjects attending an art course, and 34 psychology students of the same age and the same basic training. The split-half reliability is .906. The correlations with scores in specific art subjects are higher than for those on the Meier Art Judgment Test—even where these correlations are calculated for small numbers of subjects.

The problems of the technique using critical incidents are reviewed and an alternative, time-series method of implementing this technique is discussed. The results are evaluated based on convergent validity when compared with content analysis and questionnaire measures for one variable. The critical incidents technique is shown to have relatively low convergent validity even when attempts are made to remove selective retention bias.

48 two-person teams communicated through channels simulating various modes of telecommunication, teletypewriter, telephone, and closed-circuit television, and, as a control, face-to-face conversation. Each team was required to solve one of four problems. Two cooperative problems, a class scheduling and a geographic orientation problem, required the mutual exchange of factual information to reach the unique problem solution. Two conflictive problems, an issue ranking and a budget negotiation problem, were formulated to engender contention between the two team members. Performance was assessed on three classes of dependent measures: time to solution, behavioral measures of activity, and measures of verbal productivity. Additionally, the protocols and outcomes of the conflictive problem-solving sessions were examined to arrive at a measure of the degree of persuasion exhibited by the two communicators. For both kinds of problem solving, there was a sharp dichotomy in performance, on all three classes of dependent variable, between the teletypewriter mode and the other three modes all of which had a voice channel. Solutions to all problems in the voice modes were much faster but at the same time far more verbose than those in the teletypewriter mode. The addition of a visual channel to a voice mode does not appreciably decrease solution times, nor does it matter whether the visual channel is “live,” that is, face-to-face, or mediated by a closed-circuit television system. For the most part, mode effects were robust and held for all problems. The characteristics of the several modes of communication were largely independent of the kind of task assigned to the teams of subjects.

This 2⁶ factorial experiment investigated the primacy effect in the orienting response. The type of stimuli (tone or “music”), stimulus intensities (loud or soft), length of adaptation period (same, 5 or 30 sec.; or different, 5 min.), interstimulus intervals (5 or 30 sec.), and sex were studied. College students, 32 males and 32 females were randomly assigned to each group. In the same condition, the tone (or music) was soft (or loud) for 5 sec. (or 30 sec.) in adaptation and was then changed alternately without interruption to loud, soft, etc. (or soft, loud, etc.) for 5 sec. (or 30 sec.). The different condition was identical except for the length of the adaptation period in which the stimuli sounded continuously for 5 min. Analyses of the GSR manifestation of the orienting responses indicated: (a) an over-all primacy effect with the auditory stimuli and (b) the primacy effect occurred in the 5-sec.-same but not in the 30-sec.-same condition as predicted.

19 preschool children were administered the IES Arrow-Dot test at the beginning and end of the school year and results compared with those based on a similar sample gathered the previous year. Trends for declining Impulsivity and Superego development were corroborated. Baselines for Impulsivity and Superego showed variation. Baselines and trends of rising Ego scores were supported. Results suggested suport for developmental trends of personality integration in preschool children.

Respiration rates were monitored on 20 high-anxious and 20 low-anxious female Ss while they were watching an anxiety-provoking film on industrial accidents. Half of the Ss exercised on a bicycle while half remained seated throughout their viewing of the film. Exercised Ss reported feeling less anxious while viewing the accidents compared with the inactive controls. All groups recalled similar amounts of the film content, and respiration rates did not increase while viewing the accidents. Results of self-report of anxiety are consistent with a recently advanced theory of objective self-awareness.

20 young children, 11 boys and 9 girls, 13 to 30 mo. of age were assessed developmentally on the Gesell Developmental Record by 2 psychiatric residents and on the Bayley scales by 2 psychologists. The psychologists and psychiatric residents also gave their opinions based on interviews of half of these children. Spearman correlations were high for Bayley and Gesell scores. Psychologists' estimates correlated better with the Bayley and the Gesell scores than did the estimates of psychiatry residents. Clearly, the structured tests were superior to interviewers' estimates in assessing the developmental level of these small children. After quite limited training, the psychiatric residents were able to use the Gesell scales effectively.

Previous studies have demonstrated there are large individual differences in subjects' ability to perform on vigilance or watch-keeping tasks. This study used Rotter's Internal-External (I-E) Locus of Control Scale to resolve some of the variance attributed to individual differences and tested the hypothesis that the internally controlled person is a better monitor on a vigilance task than an externally controlled person. There were 64 subjects who performed a visual watch-keeping task for a 1-hr. period. The results indicated that the external subjects made significantly more incorrect responses and missed significantly more signals during the entire task. The internal-external dimension was effective in differentiating performance on a vigilance task.

26 schizophrenic patients (40 to 55 yr.), 21 non-schizophrenic patients (40 to 55 yr.), and 18 staff controls (25 to 40 yr.) from the same unit of a public psychiatric hospital were questioned about hand preference. Schizophrenics showed somewhat more confusion about hand preference than other subjects, but otherwise patterns of hand preference did not differ for the three groups. The inclusion of schizophrenics among those groups identified with laterality disturbances, then, was not supported.

This study examined the relationship between tempo, as measured by the Matching Familiar Figures Test, the ability to regulate tempo, and teachers' ratings of children's performance in first grade. Data suggest that both tempo and the ability to regulate tempo are related to children's performance in first grade, and that dimensions are additive. On all tasks administered, errors accounted for more of the variance in children's performance than did response time. These results are consistent with recent reports critical of the matching task. Sex differences were also noted.

The present study examined whether the symptom of defective attention and the strength of verbal fluency could be used to differentiate learning disabled boys from the normal and educable mentally handicapped learners. Using the WISC Vocabulary subtest and word-naming task, the response differences among groups of 10 learning disabled boys, 10 educable boys, and 15 normal controls were examined. Four discriminant function analyses indicated that the normal boys performed well on both tasks and the educable boys performed poorly, whereas, the learning disabled boys had a strength of verbal fluency that discriminated them from the educable boys and an attentional deficit that discriminated them from the normal controls.

Monitoring of eye movements resulting from the tracking of sound displacements in total darkness confirmed the generally accepted idea that smooth pursuit cannot be induced in the absence of a real visible target Exclusively saccadic movements were obtained with real and apparent displacements of a constant frequency source and with frequency variations associated to spatially calibrated positions through training for 5 Ss. Smooth pursuit eye movements were only observed if S was allowed to point and follow with his hand the perceived position of acoustic targets.

To determine their relative effects, the preferences of 19 deprived and 21 non-deprived preschoolers for both complex stimuli and novel stimuli was measured. The deprived children showed a lack of preference for the novel stimuli but did not differ from the non-deprived group in their preference for complexity. These data clarified a confounding of these stimulus dimensions which had occurred in previous studies.

Field dependence-independence is a possible social-psychological variable which contributes to inter-ethnic group differences. 40 Grade 6 children equally divided by race (Negro and white) and by sex were administered the Embedded-figures Test. High scores, indicating field dependence, of the black girls accounted for most of the significant differences due to race and sex.

25 sixth grade students from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds were administered two Piagetian formal operational tasks (bending rods and balance beam) and a test of field independence. A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient of .92 (p < .001) was found between the two formal operational tasks. Correlations between the formal operational tasks and field independence were .81 and .77 (p < .001) respectively. These values support the hypothesis of a unified stage of formal reasoning and also support the hypothesis that a degree of field independence is required for the development of formal stage reasoning.

RT and its left/right difference of both biceps muscles were measured by electromyogram (EMG) in the bilateral simultaneous flexion of elbows using 11 left- and 13 right-handed subjects under four conditions which were combinations of two factors: warning signal; presence or absence of a fore-period, and position of limbs; elbow 90° or 135°. EMG-RT and its left/right difference were influenced by these factors. The effects of warning and position of limbs were not the same on the preferred and non-preferred hands. It was assumed that EMG-RTs of biceps in the preferred hand were less influenced by these experimental conditions.

Percentages of responses to a specially constructed questionnaire showed the majority of 36 children in Grade 6 of a traditional school, 40 in an open school and 34 high school students in a traditional school suggested children perceived their schools as competitively structured but preferred cooperative experience.

This experiment demonstrates serial processing of tachistoscopic patterns when all potential artifacts are eliminated. Two nonsense arrays of six letters were tachistoscopically exposed successively at the same positions. Ss identified more letters from the temporally first string on the left of fixation and more from the second on the right, indicating left-to-right serial processing. Variations among Ss in the location of the crossover in curves indicate individual differences in processing time. Therefore, this study demonstrates definitively that tachistoscopic performance at various positions can reflect a sequential left-to-right processing of information, possibly at different rates.

This study tested the hypothesis suggested by our earlier research that the principal effect of heightened anxiety on speech fluency is an interference with language formulation. 20 women read contextual material aloud at ovulation (when the typical woman experiences her greatest feelings of well-being) and at premenstruation (when she experiences a significant increase in anxiety level). They were no less fluent at premenstruation than at ovulation. These data are consistent with the hypothesis tested.

The perception of the pictorial depth cue of overlapping was studied in children 3, 5, and 7 yr. old. Both a sequential and a simultaneous picture/object-matching task were used to test sensitivity. All age groups successfully perceived the depth relation information provided by pictorial overlapping. Height on the picture plane, which projectively covaries with overlapping, was not consistently used as a depth cue by any age group. Children's drawings were also analyzed for the presence of distance information. The drawings of the 3- and 5-yr.-old children contained no overlapping cues and indicated a general lack of understanding of the third dimension behind the picture plane. Seven-yr.-old children showed the beginnings of this understanding through their use of size perspective and height on the picture plane as depth cues. For all ages the production of the overlapping cue lags behind its perception.

Observations of behavior of 24 teachers of 683 children in Grades 4 and 5 and of students' perceptions of instruction yielded significant correlations between teachers' systematic organized behavior with students' positive motivation, understanding of subject matter, and attitude about grading but no correlations were found between teachers' warm, friendly behavior and students' attitude about instruction or teachers' creative behavior and such attitudes.

A combination of Selected Designs and Background Interference Procedure was administered to 31 (11 men, 20 women) adult in-patients. Only 48% of the protocols showed discriminable differences between the first and second reproductions.