Abstract
The aim of this study is to examine the emotional effects of stimuli present in the work environment on employee behavior. The study utilized the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) model and included 182 operators from a designated production area. Content, construct, and reliability validity assessments were performed on the instruments measuring the active elements of stimuli and responses. The Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) Scale was employed to assess emotional state (organism), with attention to cultural and linguistic validity. Simple and multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the proposed hypotheses. Of the participants, 43% were vocational high school graduates, and 82% had more than 10 years of operator experience. Results indicated that 83% perceived stimuli, 45% reported positive emotional states while working, and 70% responded to stimulus factors. Stimuli exerted a significant effect on emotional state, whereas emotional state did not significantly influence reactions. Additionally, stimuli had a positive, significant effect on observed reactions. Further investigation into workplace stimuli and a broader evaluation of how employee emotional states impact work life may offer valuable contributions to occupational health and safety research.
Plain Language Summary
Emotions have an impact on human behavior. It is also aimed to evaluate the effect of emotions in working life in terms of occupational health and safety. The hypothesis that the factors that trigger the employee’s emotions may have an effect on experiencing a workplace accident or working safely has been tested. The basic element of occupational health and safety practices is the employee. Within the scope of the activities carried out to protect the employee, risk assessments are carried out by determining the hazards to which the employee may be exposed. With the research, it has been tried to focus on the fact that the emotional state of employees can also be an effective element in risk assessments. Since occupational health and safety covers the entire working life, it is the main goal to reveal an approach that can be applied to all employees. Emotion typologies are used to study people’s emotional behavior. This study was designed using the SOR Model in the form that the stimulus factors affect the emotional state and thus the behavior is also affected. The study was conducted with 182 volunteer participants. Personnel with the same working environment and the same job description were selected in order to ensure that there is no difference in social rights and working style. Thus, it is aimed to prevent contradictions in the answers to be given. The research found that stimuli in the work environment have an effect on the emotional states of employees, but these emotional states do not have an effect on employee behavior. It can be evaluated that employees with a certain level of education and experience do not reflect their emotions in their business lives. Prioritizing emotional influences in business life and including them in risk assessment stages will contribute to the creation of safer working environments.
Introduction
People are an important element in production (Doğan, 2015; Doughan, 2021). The basis of occupational health and safety practices is to protect this element. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), occupational health and safety is defined as the improvement and protection of workers’ physical, mental, and social well-being. A safe working environment is a fundamental human right. This right is protected through risk assessment. In working life, risk assessment methods are frequently used within the framework of quality management systems (Aksu, 2015) and occupational health and safety management systems (Gorny, 2019). Risk assessment identifies hazards/threats, analyzes their causes and consequences, and aims to proactively protect both the employee and the business (Zio, 2018). Risk assessment methods used to evaluate and control occupational risks in the workplace (Liu et al., 2023) can be applied as qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods, as well as multi-criteria decision-making methods (Ahmed et al., 2023; Bozkuş et al., 2022; Gül & Guneri, 2016; Ilbahar et al., 2018; Yakut et al., 2022).
Risk assessment approaches that focus on human errors (Bridges & Tew, 2010) are widely used to determine the link between errors and workplace accidents and to develop strategies to reduce them (Alexander, 2016; Yalçın et al., 2024). Using all these methods, risks are managed through a comprehensive approach that takes into account different perspectives, concerns, expectations, and underlying causes, and evaluates both positive and negative aspects (Terje, 2016). In these analyses, the employee’s identity and the human element are prioritized and protected.
Another approach involves methods for assessing employees’ commitment to work, commitment to life, desire to live, burnout syndrome, stress, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, personal success, and desensitization. Various models and theories, such as the Maslach Burnout Inventory, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, and the Job Description Scale, are used for this purpose (Chiaburu et al., 2022; Hackman et al., 1975; Irak, 2012; Meyer et al., 2002; Saane et al., 2003; Weiss et al., 1967; Yıldırım & İçerli, 2010). These methods aim to predict the psychological impact of various factors on employees and changes in employee behavior. These methods aim to ensure organizational management and continuity. The counterparts of these methods in risk assessment studies are psychosocial risk factors. Psychosocial risks are defined as those arising primarily from the interaction between an individual’s psychology and their work and that affect the individual’s mental health (Kandemir, 2017). Psychosocial risk factors are examined to identify situations that may negatively impact employee health (Kırılmaz et al., 2016; Kocabaş et al., 2018; Küçük et al., 2024; Vatansever, 2014). These factors can affect employees’ mental health, job satisfaction, stress formation, and social and psychological well-being in interpersonal relationships (Aksüt et al., 2020; Dollard et al., 2007; Fernandes & Pereira, 2016; ISO, 2021). Literature studies have shown that psychosocial risks in the workplace are strongly associated with depression and, to a lesser extent, with common mental disorders (Kuoppala et al., 2008; Rugulies et al., 2017). Psychosocial hazards can cause work stress, and work stress can cause physical and psychological illnesses (Vatansever, 2014).
It is stated that the fundamental resource of companies is people, and the most successful businesses are those that invest in their employees (Peña et al., 2024), and that the survival and success of businesses depend on their employees (Staniškienė & Stankevičiūtė, 2018). At this point, it should be considered that occupational health and safety science, with its multidisciplinary nature, can benefit from other sciences. In this regard, drawing support from the social sciences would be the right approach. Risk assessments are also used to evaluate situations in social life where people interact. These assessments involve examining the social, cultural, political, and economic circumstances of participants (Yılmaz & Göktürk, 2019). In occupational health and safety practices, the term “worker” is used, while in social studies, terms such as “individual, consumer, user, stakeholder, etc.” are used. In social science studies, emotions are used to evaluate human behaviors, reactions, or preferences. The literature shows that emotion typology methods are frequently used to assess emotional states (Aydın, 2016; Bakırtaş, 2010; Hernandez, 2019; Lester, 1992; Richins, 1997).
Emotions are considered a fundamental criterion for determining people’s behavioral preferences and for making assessments. The behavioral importance of emotions can be expressed as encouraging certain behaviors (Doucleff, 2013), providing a rich source of information for people to understand their interactions with the world (Dennison, 2023), and directing attention to the emotions felt (Glore & Gasper, 2000). It is stated that emotions are characteristic of an individual’s urge to act in response to stimuli and can be effective in the processes of thinking and behaving (Güngör, 2016).
In literature studies, psychosocial risk factors, referred to as a sub-factor group in risk assessment methods, and in methods used in research conducted within the scope of organizational management, the reflections of an individual’s psychological and emotional states on their work life (job performance, job commitment, work-family interaction, job insecurity, job turnover, stress, burnout, etc.; Bostan et al., 2025; Chen & Huang, 2016; Lin et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2017; Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018; Obrenovic et al., 2020; Seo et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2020) as well as employee productivity, commitment to work and workplace, and psychological health (Cheng et al., 2014; Çini, 2022; Fisher & Ashkanasy, 2000; Öztürk et al., 2016; Richter et al., 2014; Suzy & Paul, 2002; Tan et al., 2023; Yüce-selvi & Sümer, 2018).
Although emotions are consistently addressed in the literature, variations exist in their application, evaluation criteria, and interpretation of results. Previous research (Barrett et al., 2013; Jain & Bagdare, 2011; Oakes & North, 2008; Spence et al., 2014; Turley & Milliman, 2000) indicates limited scholarship on the impact of environmental factors on human emotions and behaviors in natural settings. The present study adopts the position that environmental stimuli may influence employees’ emotional states, thereby affecting safe work behaviors. The objective is to examine the influence of emotional arousal on work accidents, near misses, and adherence to safe work practices. Beyond its implications for production, organizational commitment, performance, productivity, and psychological and physiological well-being, the study seeks to clarify the relationship between emotional arousal and the incidence of work accidents. This research offers theoretical and practical frameworks for integrating emotional arousal into risk assessment methods and for incorporating emotional evaluations into occupational health and safety practices, thereby advancing safe working conditions.
The research used the stimulus-organism-response model. We developed a scale to identify stimulus factors. We translated the emotion typology method—including satisfaction, emotional arousal, and pleasure—into Turkish to represent the organism. We also developed and applied a scale to determine the response.
Literature Review, Hypotheses, and Theoretical Analysis
Emotions and Work Life
The term “emotion” is a common linguistic term. It summarizes cultural and individual understandings of sensations, feelings, and perceived values in response to stimuli such as factors, objects, or events (Fernández, 1995; Ortony et al., 1996; Russell, 1980, 2003). Emotion can also be defined as the mind’s ability to recognize and experience environmental stimuli that trigger a behavioral response (Saleem et al., 2022). Sensory input from our environment plays an important role in how we feel and behave (Turley & Milliman, 2000). Emotions can emerge as a driving force. They can lead to powerful, widespread, and sometimes predictable decisions that may be helpful or harmful (Lerner et al., 2015). Some researchers have suggested that emotions can directly cause action. They argue that the function of emotions is to guide organisms to behave in ways that cope with emotional states (Cosmides & Tooby, 2000; Frijda, 1986; Fredrickson, 2001). Individuals use both reason and emotion in their decision-making process. Neglecting emotions in this process can lead to misjudgments (Hume, 2012). Depending on the nature of the stimulus—object, agent, or event—emotions can vary (Ortony et al., 1996). They can be positive or negative (Ashkanasy & Dorris, 2017). Emotions emerge as responses that help individuals detect, interpret, and make sense of changes in conditions (Izard, 1992; Strigo & Craig, 2016). They affect mental states, emotions, actions, and behaviors. Dissonant emotions can inhibit focused behavior or lead to different behavior (Damasio & Carvalho, 2013; Strigo & Craig, 2016). Positive emotions are said to meet employees’ need to feel safe. Negative emotions can lead to careful behavior, behavioral change, and error-correcting behavior (Huang et al., 2020). This situation suggests the need for further examination of emotions.
Emotions can fluctuate based on changes in people. Their effects may emerge over time (Diener et al., 2019). These effects can cause rapid, automatic behaviors that are difficult to prevent, even when they are inappropriate (Schreuder et al., 2016). Emotions can act as warning mechanisms. They enable organisms to adapt their behavior in response to environmental conditions (Ashkanasy & Dorris, 2017; Harmon-Jones et al., 2017). Emotions are closely related to an individual’s ability to adapt to various environmental conditions. They involve changes triggered by internal or external stimuli that motivate individuals to respond and adapt.
Ashkanasy (2015) stated that the study of emotions in the workplace is a recognized and important area of research in industrial and organizational psychology. Nelton (1996) examined emotions from a work perspective, defining them as follows: “You cannot separate emotions from the workplace because you cannot separate emotions from people.”Di Fabio and Kenny (2019) discussed the importance of evaluating employees’ emotions and relationships as significant psychological resources for establishing a healthy organizational foundation. Emotions play an important role in people’s lives, including their professional lives. Studies on emotions generally examine emotional expressions within the work role (Fisher & Ashkanasy, 2000). However, work life has been described as not separate from an individual’s normal life. Emotions, attitudes, and behaviors can interact with the environment (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Managers’ efforts to promote work-life balance through emotional state assessments and improvement initiatives while collaborating with staff will positively impact both the company and its employees (Arnold et al., 2024).
Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) Model
The study is based on the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) model, developed by Mehrabian and Russell (1974), which describes responses as the result of human-environment interaction. According to the model, interaction with stimuli is a process that feeds internal states, which trigger exhibited responses (Ahmed et al., 2020). This structural model can be used to relate observable and unobservable variables to individual responses (Hempel & Hamm, 2016). The model proposes that organisms respond to external stimuli (Kwon & Boger, 2021). A stimulus is an external factor that causes an individual to respond, and an organism is a psychological transformation mechanism through which a user internalizes a stimulus as information (Huang et al., 2022).
This model was developed for environmental psychology and has since found widespread application. Its main areas of application are marketing (Kamboj et al., 2018; Kıymalıoğlu et al., 2024; C. T. Lee et al., 2023; Zhang & Yang, 2023), social commerce (Cai, 2022; Djafarova & Bowes, 2021; Zhou et al., 2022), tourism (Wu et al., 2022; Wu & Lai, 2021), healthcare (Yang et al., 2021; C. Zhou et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2023), environmental sciences (Dong et al., 2022; Mahmud et al., 2020), education (Goi et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2020), management (Chen et al., 2022; Kabadayi et al., 2023; Qi & Ramayah, 2022), consumer behavior (Bigne et al., 2020; Han et al., 2022; Rayburn et al., 2022).
Although there are few applications of the SOR model in occupational health and safety literature, it has been used in some studies. One study emphasized the effectiveness of occupational safety advertisements featuring comic book characters in increasing employee awareness and reducing fear (Arpa & Çakı, 2018). Another study used the SOR model to examine the relationships among chemical engineering students’ safety behaviors in the laboratory, their safety knowledge, and motivation. It was determined that safety coaching was an important mediating factor (Abdullah & Aziz, 2020). Another study examined employees’ transportation options to work and found that environmental and job characteristic variables indirectly affect private transportation through organizational factors (Djakfar et al., 2021). Another study found that a supportive work environment plays an important role in employees’ learning within an organization. This study showed that peer and top management support (stimulus) significantly increased employee confidence and self-efficacy (organism), and the organism mediated the relationship between motivation and response (Attiq et al., 2017). A study conducted in China examined factors affecting welders’ risk perception at the individual and organizational levels using the SOR model (Yang et al., 2025).
Stimulus
The stimulus, or the set of factors that initiate the model, represents the environment users encounter (Jacoby, 2002). The stimulus is also defined as something that motivates or encourages a person to take action (Cambridge, 2023; Tureng, 2022). These factors affect an individual’s cognitive and emotional processes (Liao et al., 2015; Sugiarto et al., 2022) and consequently shape their response (Kotler et al., 2023). The stimulus is also defined as the primary variable in a psychological experiment (Gibson, 1960).
Although the industrial work environment has undergone significant changes in terms of working conditions (Giagloglou et al., 2019), studies have shown that the work environment affects employee well-being (Cummings & Malloy, 1977; Gnanayudam & Dharmasiri, 2007; Lawler & Hall, 1970; Sheppard & Herrick, 1972; Simmons & Mares, 1985).
This study is based on the SOR model. The factors to be presented as stimuli were determined using the Workplace Exposure to Stimuli Scale, specifically prepared for this study.
Workplace Exposure to Stimuli Scale (IMKU)
Accidents in the workplace can originate from people, situational, or environmental factors. After an accident occurs, responsibility can be attributed directly or indirectly to a manager or employee (human factor); the operations performed; the tools, equipment, or materials used (situational factor); or workplace conditions, such as noise, vibration, and inadequate lighting (work environment factor; Martin & Walters, 2001). Although these factors are interpreted as causes of accidents, they can also be considered accident factors. Thus, it can be concluded that multiple stimulus factors exist in the workplace. Furthermore, all psychosocial factors arising from the interaction among job description, content, work organization, working conditions, level of technological advancement, and employees’ competence, needs, and resources impact employees (Greco, 2014; Stavroula & Aditya, 2013). E. Lee et al. (2023) state that it would be useful to consider factors such as working hours, work pace, standing positions involving physical risk, exposure to physical and verbal harassment, and the provision of health and safety information.
Considering all these factors, the IMKU scale was designed to identify potential stimuli. It consists of six subgroups: people, working conditions, machines, environment, management, and methods. There are also questions directed at these groups.
All employees are part of a system that places heavy demands on its members to achieve high productivity and profitability. Employees are indispensable to the system because of their human qualities and the labor they perform (Karlsson et al., 2015). Employees can also be described as individuals involved in the design and manufacture of a product, expending operational or functional labor in manufacturing (Trout, 2022). Employees are individuals with personal and cognitive knowledge, attitudes, and opinions within their organization (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978) and are affected by factors in the work environment (Das & Baruah, 2013; Kyriakidou & Özbilgin, 2004).
Working conditions, such as production quality and productivity, working hours and schedules, rest periods and environments, ergonomic factors, cleanliness, floor coloring (Bayazıt, 2007), and hygiene (Parlak, 2020) can be evaluated for occupational health and safety. Employee health and well-being are strongly related to employee satisfaction. Workplace design, inadequate ventilation, insufficient lighting, and noise can negatively affect employees (Bangwal et al., 2017).
Machine-related situations may vary in nature but can generally be defined as mechanical, electrical, thermal, noise-related, vibration-related, design-related, radiation-related, processed material-related, substance-related, or poor ergonomics-related (Anonymous, 2004); rotating machine parts-related (Parlak, 2017); mechanical-related; electrical-related; repetitive tasks-related; or operator training-related (Oral & Bayhun, 2021). Furthermore, Strasser (1995) states that the optimal design of the human-machine system should be capable of meeting human abilities and eliminating the undesirable effects of the job on the operator. This design can contribute positively to both ergonomics and occupational safety.
The environment comprises circumstances that can affect employees. These factors can include temperature, pressure, humidity, vibrations, noise, light, ventilation, dust, and odor (Kaya & Özok, 2013; Liliana, 2016; Parlak, 2017).
Management involves many activities, such as planning, evaluating, and making decisions. It utilizes tangible and intangible resources, such as finance, labor, machinery, equipment, and information, to achieve goals (Hitt, 2005). Additionally, technological innovations, social and psychological protection of employees, and ensuring their development (Kansu et al., 2021) are stated to be decisive, as are the attitudes of supervisors in occupational health and safety, effective communication with supervisors, trust, and risk-sharing in the workplace (Demirbilek & Çakır, 2008). An emphasis on employee safety by management, as well as the perception that employee safety is as important as production safety, influences employees’ internalization of the safety culture and their sense of self-worth (Cox & Cheyne, 2000). Organizational factors considered to be root causes of accidents include time and work pressure, training, rules and procedures, management, employee participation, and communication (Rosness et al., 2004). Fleming and Lardner (2002) stated that leadership and guidance, managerial actions (e.g., facility and equipment investment, training, recruitment processes, and occupational health and safety processes), risk control processes, workplace processes, audits, and practices are important categories that influence health and safety behaviors.
The method can also be evaluated as a technique that ensures specific requirements, such as policies, procedures, standards, legal regulations, and rules, are implemented to guarantee production continuity (Liliana, 2016). Employees are expected to adjust their work attitudes and behaviors when they comply with policies, procedures, and practices (Guldenmund, 2010; Zohar, 2010).
A substance pool has been created to evaluate active ingredients that may result in employees being excluded from the defined main categories. The questions cover topics evaluated in the literature as well as legal regulations, such as laws, regulations, and standards. They also cover employees’ field experience, the topics covered in field inspections, and risk assessments conducted for occupational health and safety. Additionally, they cover issues predicted to be active ingredients. Technical personnel trained in the field and experienced in active fieldwork, including engineers, technicians, foremen, journeymen, and masters, were also consulted in creating the substance pool.
The brain integrates multiple sensory stimuli from the environment to reduce perceptual uncertainty, improve performance, make accurate decisions, and enhance perception (Helbig & Ernst, 2008; Lalanne & Lorenceau, 2004; Philippi et al., 2008). In this context, the IMKU scale was used and serves as the basis for the H1 hypothesis.
The emotions evaluated within the scope of the hypothesis were addressed using expressions representing the “organism” dimension.
Organism
According to Garner (1974), the organism possesses many different types of information-processing abilities and processes information in response to stimuli and the task at hand. An organism is defined as a psychological state that links environmental stimuli to individual responses (Chang et al., 2015). Organisms express individuals’ emotional and cognitive states, such as feelings, experiences, and perceptions (Shah et al., 2021). While performing its mediating role between stimulus and response through perceptual, physiological, emotional, and cognitive activities (Kwon & Boger, 2021), the organism helps establish a causal relationship between stimulus and response (Laato et al., 2020).
Although factors related to the organism vary across studies (Zhang & Benyoucef, 2016), emotion typologies have been used to depict organisms in scientific research (Aydın, 2016; Bakırtaş, 2010). A wide variety of adjectives have been used to describe emotions in these typologies (Alan & Kabadayı, 2013). In this study, the Satisfaction, Emotional Arousal, and Dominance (PAD) model was chosen to represent the organism.
The PAD Scale consists of three dimensions: satisfaction or dissatisfaction; emotional arousal (or motivation); and dominance (or supremacy), versus submission (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). In their studies, Mehrabian and Russell considered the dominance dimension, along with the valence (pleasure) and arousal dimensions, to be effective dimensions of an individual’s emotional state. Thus, they evaluated the formation of a three-dimensional structure (Boedeker, 2016). The fundamental proposition of the PAD model is that the effect of the current situation on individual behavior can be mediated by emotional responses. The situation elicits an initial emotional response (touching, moving, evocative, or emotional) in the individual, which in turn triggers a behavioral response (Lutz & Kakkar, 1975).
In this model, the dimensions of emotion are: the pleasure dimension, which refers to the positive or negative emotions experienced by the individual; the arousal dimension, which refers to activity, movement, physical activity, and alertness levels; and finally, the dominance dimension, which refers to control, lack of restraint, autonomy/independence (Bran & Vaidis, 2020) and can be used as an expression of feelings of dominance, superiority, and effectiveness (Hetharie et al., 2019).
The satisfaction, pleasure, and valuation dimension is the state expressed as pleasure or satisfaction. It is evaluated on a continuum from extreme happiness (adjectives such as happy and satisfied) to extreme pain or unhappiness (adjectives such as unhappy, angry, and dissatisfied) (Bakker et al., 2014). Tsai et al. (2008) have stated that a state of satisfaction or aroused, triggered pleasure encourages the exploration and processing of subsequent stimuli in greater detail.
The emotional arousal dimension is a state of heightened emotional activation triggered by external factors. This state can range from calm to excited within an individual (Clore, 1994). Arousal can be conceptualized as a two-dimensional continuum, ranging from the lowest level of drowsiness to the highest level of arousal (Liu, 2003).
The dominance-control dimension can be described as an individual’s sense of control and how restricted they feel in their behavior (Bakker et al., 2014) or as an individual’s sense of control in a situation and how free or unrestricted they feel in their actions (Mehrabian, 1996).
Emotions are typically expressed through language (Kircanski et al., 2012), yet they can sometimes be challenging to identify and articulate verbally. Additionally, some emotions may be influenced and shaped by cultural factors (Immordino-Yang et al., 2014). Therefore, the PAD scale was adapted, and its Turkish equivalents were evaluated linguistically. The resulting scale, the “Emotions Triggered at Work Scale (IDTO),” was used in the study. The scale was developed for testing the H2 hypothesis.
The effect of these emotions on the response was evaluated using the statements in the “Response” dimension.
Response
Mehrabian and Russell (1974) stated that an individual’s behavior can be shaped by stimuli, leading to approach or avoidance behavior. These behaviors include being physically present or leaving the environment, performing one’s duties (increasing job satisfaction) or decreasing performance, interacting with others or avoiding interaction (refusing communication), and exploring or avoiding interaction with the environment (Yüncü, 2011). According to Brosch et al. (2013), emotions can influence how individuals perceive the world around them, how they remember events or situations, and how they react when making decisions.
The study examined how operators responded to stimuli across three dimensions: safe work, near-misses, and work accidents.
Workplaces can evaluate safe work by observing whether personnel comply with occupational health and safety practices, fulfill the requirements of their job, remain physically and psychologically fit, and refrain from behaviors that would endanger themselves, their work, or their workplace. Workplaces should protect workers’ rights and strive to create and maintain decent working conditions and a healthy, safe environment (Alli, 2008).
An occupational accident is defined as an event that occurs in the workplace or as a result of performing work, and that may cause mental or physical disability or death (Act, 2012). Such accidents greatly impact workers’ physical, social, mental, and economic well-being (Kim & Kim, 2015; Tompa et al., 2021), as well as their quality of life (W. T. Lee et al., 2022). They also affect workers’ participation in the labor market by partially or completely jeopardizing their work capacity (Ahn & Oh, 2015).
From the worker’s perspective, a near miss is an adverse event that could have caused significant harm but did not result in injury or damage (Gnoni et al., 2022). In other words, a near-miss incident is an unplanned event. Some experts argue that every accident resulting in serious injury or death was initially a near-miss incident that was neglected, ignored, or could not be prevented (Zeqiri et al., 2022).
The subgroups of the response dimension were assessed using the Stimulus and Emotion Response Scale (UDTO). The scale examined the consequences of stimuli and the resulting emotions.
Theoretical Framework
The necessity of continuous production to meet continuous needs will always place humans as an active factor. The fact that emotions are inherent in human nature and can influence people’s behavior and preferences must also be taken into account. Identifying emotional influences is effective in predicting and directing behaviors. However, workplace accidents are also an inevitable reality of continuous production. Employers seek to minimize workplace accidents to prevent material and moral losses, ensure production continuity, and comply with legal requirements. In all these situations, it cannot be assumed that employees’ workplace emotional states have no effect on their preferences for experiencing accidents, narrowly avoiding incidents, or working safely. Employers, in their risk assessments conducted as part of occupational safety practices, should also include an examination of emotional states arising from stimuli, as this can help create safe working environments.
The basic theory is that emotions present in humans can be triggered by various stimuli and influence behavior. In the current study, factors that may be present in the work environment were identified using a scale (IMKU), emotional states of employees were expressed using the PAD scale used to determine emotional expressions, and a scale was prepared to determine employee response (UDTO). Within the framework of the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) model, the aim was to evaluate situations in which a stimulus elicits an emotional response in the worker, which, in turn, shapes the worker’s behavior (e.g., during a work accident, a near-miss incident, or safe work performance).
Materials and Methods
Study Design, Sample, and Data Collection
This study is quantitative, descriptive, and methodological. The research is structured around a model of personnel working as machine operators in a specific work environment. This model excludes construction equipment operators. The model assumes that these personnel experience an emotional response to environmental stimuli and, in turn, exhibit a response. Three different scales (IMKU, ITDO, and UDTO) were developed specifically for the SOR model and this study. Employees were asked questions on a 7-point Likert scale (Table 1), and their responses were assessed. The validity and reliability of the scales were analyzed to test their suitability for use. Additionally, questions were asked to determine the participants’ sociodemographic and work characteristics (e.g., age, marital status, education level, number of children, length of service as an operator, type of work, occupational safety and health training, work accidents and near misses, and handedness). The study was conducted from June to September 2023 at a factory in the Marmara region of Turkey. Implementing the study at a single factory allowed workers to evaluate the stimuli they would be exposed to as a whole. Judgmental sampling was used to select the sample group, and preliminary work was conducted with a team of 72 people comprising expert technical personnel (engineers and technicians), active occupational safety experts, and experienced operators. This method was chosen due to the limited number of participants who could be reached, the specific work environment in which the study was conducted, the fact that only men participated, and the need for personnel with knowledge and experience in the study’s subject (OCC, 2020). The principal investigator explained the purpose and scope of the study to 247 participating personnel. Of those, 182 agreed to answer the survey questions (n = 182, 74% of the population).
Subgroups and Questions Used in the Evaluation of the Scales.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval for the research was obtained from the ethics committee of****** University’s Social and Human Sciences Research Ethics Review Board (Date: June 1, 2023, Approval No. 2023.06). Prior to application, participants were sent a consent form stating that they were informed about the research and agreed to participate. Participants were provided with information about the study through a “Voluntary Participation Consent Form.” This form provided information about the purpose of the study, confidentiality, and use of personal data. Participants signed the consent form regarding the use of their information. Thus, participants’ consent was obtained for the processing, publication, and dissemination of the data.
Statistical Analysis
The number of participants and their respective percentages were used to describe the sociodemographic and occupational characteristics of the operators who participated in the study. Before analyzing the study-specific scales, normal distribution and outlier checks were performed. Findings regarding the scales’ validity and reliability were evaluated using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), Cronbach’s alpha, McDonald’s omega, and item-total score correlation reliability analyses. Normality assessment is an important test that ensures the validity of statistical analyses used to evaluate data obtained from applications (Hair et al., 2010). When evaluating each factor’s subfactors, a range of .00 to .29 indicates a low-level relationship, .30 to .59 a medium-level relationship, and .60 to 1.00 a high-level relationship (Çokluk et al., 2023). Another study indicated that path coefficient values in the range of .10 to .50 indicate a moderate level of relationship (Suhr, 2008). In confirmatory factor analyses, goodness-of-fit indices and factor loadings are controlled. In Kline’s (1994) study, the following fit indices were used: Chi-square/degrees of freedom (χ2/df), CMIN/SD (χ2/SD), adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). A CMIN/SD (χ2/SD) value between 2 and 3 indicates an adequate model fit, while a value below 2 indicates an excellent fit (Kline, 2011; Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003). The Cronbach alpha “α” value has been described as the lower limit of reliability (Guttman, 1945), and the McDonald omega “ω” coefficient is often referred to as “structural reliability” (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The relationships among the independent variables (multicollinearity) and the autocorrelation of the error terms (the Durbin–Watson statistic) were examined. The ideal value for autocorrelation is 2.00; however, values between 1.00 and 3.00 indicate no autocorrelation (Field, 2009). For assessing item-total score correlation, a value of .30 or above is considered sufficient and acceptable (Büyüköztürk, 2023; Tavşancıl, 2014).
As a result of these evaluations, it was decided that multiple regression analyses could be performed. According to the literature, multiple linear regression analysis can be used to relate two or more independent variables (Paulson, 2007). These analyses were conducted using SPSS 24 and AMOS 22, both from IBM SPSS.
Evaluation of Scales
Workplace Exposure to Stimuli Scale (IMKU; Stimulus)
A group of 40 experts, including engineers, technicians, occupational safety specialists, human resources specialists, purchasing specialists, foremen, post office managers, cooks, and machine operators, was formed to identify active stimulus substances for the scale. The group used the Ishikawa diagram method, developed by Kaoru Ishikawa in the 1960s, to accomplish this task. The study categorized the stimuli into six sub-dimensions: people, working conditions, machinery, environment, management, and methods. Item pools for these categories were prepared using current legislation, standards, literature reviews, risk assessments, work accidents, near misses, and field supervision reports. To ensure the scale’s content validity, expert opinions were obtained from a team of 7, including 4 academics and 3 experts. Using the Lawshe technique (Lawshe, 1975), inconsistent items were removed from the scale to prepare it for implementation.
To assess the scale’s construct validity, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was first performed, followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). As a result of the EFA performed using principal component analysis and oblique rotation, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) sample adequacy value was found to be .889. These methods account for relationships between factors (Büyüköztürk, 2023). A KMO value above .60 is considered sufficient for statistical evaluation of a scale (Jeong, 2004; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The Bartlett’s sphericity test for the scale yielded a value of 4,613.596 (SD = 595, p < .001). The scale was found to have a structure comprising six subgroups and a common variance of 64.137% (Table 2). For a scale to be considered valid, it must explain more than 40% of the total variance (Çokluk et al., 2023).
IMKU Scale Sub-Factor Group Distribution and Community Values.
As a result of CFA, the fit indices were found to be, respectively: Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .064, standardized root mean square error of approximation (SRMR) = .059, comparative fit index (CFI) = .915, adjusted fit index (AGFI) = .755, and χ2/df = 1.811. The values of the comparative fit indices were within the ranges of .9 ≤ CFI ≤ 1.0 (Bentler & Bonett, 1980; Marsh et al., 2006), .85 ≤ AGFI ≤ 1.0 (Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003), .00 ≤ RMSEA ≤ .08 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Byrne & Campbell, 1999), and .00 ≤ SRMR ≤ .10 (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2011). The factor loadings (path coefficients) of the items range from .465 to .927 (Table 3).
Path Coefficients for IMKU Scale Items.
We assessed the internal consistency of the scale as a whole and its subscales using Cronbach’s alpha (α) and McDonald’s omega (ω) coefficients. The “α” coefficient values for the subscales ranged from .708 to .942, and the “ω” coefficient values ranged from .703 to .94. For the scale as a whole, α = .936 and ω = .932 were found (see Table 4).
IMKU Scale Reliability Analysis.
Finally, the item-total score correlations ranged from r = .300 to .787 (Table 5).
IMKU Scale Item-Total Correlation Values.
Based on these analyses, it was determined that the IMKU scale has appropriate content and construct validity.
Workplace-Triggered Emotions Scale (ITDO; Organism)
The Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) scale was used to determine the organism’s emotional state. As part of the cultural adaptation process, the scale, which was originally in English, was translated into Turkish. Three faculty members who were informed about the study carried out the translation process. The researchers compared the translations with those previously published in the literature (Alan & Kabadayı, 2013; Aydın, 2016; Bakırtaş, 2010; Gümüşsoy, 2018; Yılmazoğlu, 2021; Yüncü, 2011) and combined them into a single text. The resulting Turkish version was then translated back into English by a native English speaker. The researchers compared the original and translated versions of the scale, and the final version was provided. Feedback was obtained from a group of 40 experts to determine the understandability of the emotion scale statements, and the scale was prepared for use.
The PAD scale consists of three subgroups—pleasure, arousal, and dominance—and a total of 18 items. The translation process for the PAD scale has been completed. AFA and DFA were performed to evaluate their construct validity. Principal component analysis (PCA) with oblique rotation yielded a KMO of .743 and a Bartlett’s sphericity test result of 952.604 (SD = 36, p < .001). The scale was found to have a structure in which 74.656% of the total variance is represented by the three subgroups (Table 6).
ITDO Sub-Factor Group Distribution and Community Values.
The fit index values for the scale were as follows: RMSEA = .043, SRMR = .041, CFI = .991, AGFI = .935, and χ2/df = 1.359. The factor loadings (path coefficients) of the items ranged from .581 to .962 (Table 7).
Path Coefficients for ITDO Scale Items.
The internal consistency of the scale ranged from .684 to .894 for the α coefficients and from .703 to .90 for the β coefficients. Overall, the scale had α = .787 and β = .736 (Table 8). The item-total score correlations for the scale items ranged from r = .361 to .630 (Table 9).
ITDO Scale Reliability Analysis.
ITDO Scale Item-Total Correlation Values.
The evaluations revealed that the ITDO scale has appropriate content and construct validity.
Stimulus and Emotion Response Scale (UDTO; Response)
The UDTO scale is used to express responses and is divided into three subgroups: safe work, near miss, and work accident. Expert opinion was obtained using the Lawshe technique (Lawshe, 1975), and construct validity was first tested by AFA and then by DFA. In the AFA, which used principal component analysis and oblique rotation, the KMO was found to be .758, and the result of the Bartlett’s sphericity test was 1,206.212 (df = 91, p < .001). The scale was found to have a structure in which the three subgroups represented 60.497% of the total variance (Table 10).
UDTO Sub-Factor Group Distribution and Community Values.
The fit indices were as follows: RMSEA = .079, SRMR = .060, CFI = .927, AGFI = .861, and χ2/df = 2.236. The factor loadings (path coefficients) of the items ranged from .344 to .884 (Table 11).
Path Coefficients for UDTO Scale Items.
The “α” coefficient values in the subscales ranged from .676 to .858, and the “ω” coefficient values ranged from .70 to .852. Overall, the scale showed α = .848 and β = .835 (Table 12). The item-total score correlations for the scale items ranged from r = .319 to .615 (Table 13).
UDTO Scale Reliability Analysis.
UDTO Scale Item-Total Correlation Values.
Results
As shown in Table 14, 40.7% of the participants were between 45 and 49 years old, 42% were vocational high school graduates, 92.9% were married, and 49.5% had 2 children. Additionally, it was noted that 82.4% of the operators had worked for at least 10 years, 50% worked shifts, and 98.9% had received occupational health and safety training. Additionally, it was determined that 65.9% of participants had not experienced a work accident, 58.8% had experienced a near-miss incident, and 90.7% were right-handed (Table 15).
Demographic Characteristics of the Participants.
Study the Characteristics of the Participants.
Structural validity and reliability analyses confirmed the usability of the IMKU, IDTO, and UDTO scales. The minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation values were calculated for each scale. For the IMKU scale, the values were 4.17–7.00, 6.02 ± .53, 1.00–6.33, and 3.73 ± 1.18; for the IDTO scale, the values were 4.14–7.00 and 5.91 ± 0.63; and for the UDTO scale, the values were 4.14–7.00 and 5.91 ± .63 (Table 16).
Descriptive Findings for the Scale Scores.
It was determined that the stimuli to which operators were exposed had a significant (p < .05), though negative (b = −.542), effect on their emotions. As exposure to the stimuli increased, positive emotions related to arousal and dominance decreased significantly. Based on this finding, the H1 hypothesis that “the stimuli experienced by operators have a significant effect on their emotions” was accepted. It was concluded that 5.9% (R2 = .059) of operators’ emotions can be explained by the stimuli to which they are exposed (Table 17). Responses to the scale indicated high levels of perception among employees. It was concluded that the participants were older, had worked as operators for a long time, and were experienced. Furthermore, these characteristics can be evaluated as an ability to perceive stimulus factors at a higher level. Among the groups included in the scale, the “machine” group had the highest perception level (
The Effect of Exposed Stimuli on Emotional State.
F(1–180) = 11.363; p < .05; R2 = .059; Durbin–Watson = 1.838.
It was determined that the emotions triggered in operators had a negative effect (b = −.051) on their responses, but the relationship between the two variables was not significant (p > .05; Table 18). Therefore, the H2 hypothesis, “The emotions of operators triggered by stimuli significantly affect the resulting responses,” was rejected. According to the IDTO scale, the positive emotion rate was 45%, indicating that operators generally experience dissatisfaction. This interpretation is confirmed by the “satisfaction” subscale having the lowest value (
The Effect of Triggered Emotions on Reactions.
F(1–180) = 1.654; p < .05; R2 = .009; Durbin–Watson = 1.707.
It has been determined that the stimuli to which operators are exposed significantly (p < .05) and positively (b = .516) affect the resulting responses (H3 is accepted). As exposure to these stimuli increases, a significant correlation emerges between safe working practices, work accidents, and near misses. Thus, 19% of the effect on operators’ responses stems from the stimuli to which they are exposed (R2 = .190; Table 19). Therefore, hypothesis H3—“The stimuli to which personnel working as operators are exposed have a significant effect on the resulting responses”—is accepted. The participants’ response levels are high at 70.1%. The “near-miss” subgroup has the highest response level (
The Effect of Exposed Stimuli on Reactions.
F(1–180) = 42.267; p < .05; R2 = .190; Durbin–Watson = 1.838.
Hypotheses H1 and H3 were accepted because they were significant in the regression analyses. Hypothesis H2 was rejected because the results were not significant. The active ingredients in stimulants were found to have a negative and significant effect on pleasure formation (p < .005, R2 = .012), arousal formation (p < .005, R2 = .044), and dominance formation (p < .005, R2 = .035). Furthermore, stimulant active ingredients were found to have positive, significant effects on responses to safe work (p < .005, R2 = .206), near misses (p < .005, R2 = .048), and work accidents (p < .005, R2 = .092). However, the emotional states created by the stimulating effect were found to have no significant effect on safe work (p > .005; R2 = .013), near misses (p > .005; R2 = .003), or work accidents (p > .005; R2 = .001).
Discussion
According to Geller (2001), occupational safety requires large-scale, long-term behavioral and attitudinal change. It is crucial to ensure safe working conditions in the workplace. Risk analyses aimed at preventing accidents are more valuable than cause-and-effect analyses conducted after an accident. The fundamental purpose of risk analysis is to inform, guide, and support relevant individuals to reduce risk. Risk analysis should not be conducted merely for the sake of doing so; rather, it should be used to genuinely address and intervene in hazards by comprehensively examining the work environment and work life from various perspectives. Conducting risk analysis is not an end in itself (Leka & Cox, 2008); rather, it should be considered a path toward a solution. Taking a broader approach to risk analysis (Barışık, 2023) and expanding the methods and criteria will make it easier to protect people and businesses (Bayhun & Demirel, 2024). These methods coincide with the basis of the current study, which examines the need to assess emotions (AISGA, 2007), defined as a “new and increasing” risk for occupational health and safety. This study examines the hypothesis that factors in the work environment can affect employees’ emotions and that these emotional states can influence employee behavior. Thus, the aim is to establish a relationship between emotions and occupational health and safety practices.
Theoretical Contributions
The work that people do can result in physical, social, and psychological harm due to social and environmental factors that depend on their position in the organizational hierarchy and how they are managed (Cox & Griffiths, 1995). Furthermore, issues that employees face in the workplace have been identified, including those related to job autonomy, interpersonal communication, social environment and support, job security, and career development. These issues have been found to affect workers psychologically, impacting their emotional state and potentially endangering their health (Kocabaş et al., 2018). For this reason, the IMKU scale was developed to create a comprehensive pool of items. The scale’s factors were evaluated based on the premise that they coexist in the work environment, exert a combined effect on employees, and can therefore influence their emotions and reactions. The current study suggests that emotions can directly cause behavior and direct the organism to behave in ways that cope with emotional events (Cosmides & Tooby, 2000; Frijda, 1986). Other studies indicate that emotions are triggered by stimuli and influence behavior and attention (Hetharie et al., 2019; Leventhal & Scherer, 1987; Lazarus, 1984; Izard, 1992; Akgün & Zerenler, 2021). This study examines how emotions can guide employees toward safe work practices and help prevent workplace accidents.
Some studies argue that emotions accompany employees throughout all work processes, affecting them and shaping their preferences and behaviors (Griep et al., 2022; Kim & Lee, 2022; B. Zhang et al., 2022). These findings suggest that emotions can be used to predict individual attitudes and behaviors. Therefore, this represents a fundamental aspect of the current study.
The perceived level of threat in the work environment can increase an individual’s motivation to protect themselves (McGinty et al., 2010). The employee’s perception of danger as a threat, along with their level of knowledge about it, can encourage greater self-protection (Arezes & Miguel, 2008). Furthermore, the perception of threat can influence behavioral changes (Ferrer & Klein, 2015). These situations are associated with anticipated anxiety about the consequences of the hazard, which triggers a demand for risk-reducing measures (Rundmo & Moen, 2007). These findings support the idea that emotional states, as examined in our study, should be incorporated into risk assessments.
Burnout, anxiety, stress, depression, and feelings of failure are factors that contribute to emotional exhaustion. This condition can cause physical, psychological, and behavioral problems and differences in individuals (Schaufeli et al., 2009). It has been shown that these factors, primarily occupational stress, affect both employees and businesses, creating various harmful, costly, and debilitating consequences (Babatunde, 2013; Beheshtifar & Nazarian, 2013; Newton & Teo, 2014). Emotions triggered by stimuli can cause serious problems, such as workplace accidents or near-miss incidents that result in costly material, machinery/equipment, and production losses. In this case, it is consistent with our theory that emotions can influence reactions.
Some studies have indicated that emotional states and job situation factors can affect employees (Dalal et al., 2020; Diener et al., 2019), while work environments that lead to job turnover can affect third parties (Wei et al., 2018). The judgment that workplace factors significantly influence people’s behavior (Das & Baruah, 2013; Kyriakidou & Özbilgin, 2004) provides the basis for the hypothesis that the stimuli examined in the study affect employee responses.
Various terms related to workplace safety have been defined and used. One of these is the term “safety climate,” which focuses on physical injury risks in the workplace (Zohar, 1980). Another is the term “psychosocial safety climate,” which is accepted as the policies, practices, and procedures adopted to protect the mental health and safety of employees (Dollard & Bakker, 2010; Law et al., 2011). The psychosocial safety climate consists of four components: management priority, management commitment, organizational communication, and organizational participation (Hall et al., 2010). These components are consistent with the stimulus factors evaluated in the current study and share similar potential to affect employees emotionally.
Leadership behaviors and practices have an impact on employees’ emotional state, stress, and job well-being (Dehue et al., 2012; Skakon et al., 2010) and have been identified as an effective psychosocial factor on employees’ psychological state (Fleishman & Harris, 1962; Gavin & Kelley, 1978; Thoroughgood et al., 2012). In the current study, it can be stated that the studies may share similar characteristics, as the management factor group was evaluated, and it was determined that the management group effectively influenced responses.
A study found that employees are most affected psychologically by the risks of occupational accidents and diseases, and that establishing psychological support units in workplaces could help prevent this (Kocabaş et al., 2018). The present study differs in that it attempts to examine the effect of emotional state on occupational accidents that may occur due to the stimulus effect.
Ryu and Jang (2008) found that facility aesthetics, ambiance (music, temperature, scent, etc.), and layout/arrangement (machinery, equipment, etc.) affect employees’ pleasure and arousal in the service sector, whereas lighting does not. As a result, they found that pleasure and arousal significantly affect behavioral intentions. This finding is contrary to the current study’s finding that emotional states have no significant effect on employee behavior in terms of pleasure, arousal, and dominance.
Practical Implications
The high age group, level of vocational training, and length of experience of participating operators can be interpreted as indicating a high level of professional experience, with these personnel not allowing their emotions, even when triggered by stimuli, to interfere with their work life or behavior. This demonstrates that it may be important for companies to fully establish the professional guidance and development of their employees, as well as their task distribution, procedures, and processes.
It has been widely demonstrated that managerial support can influence employee behavior through psychological factors (Eisenberger et al., 2016). It is stated that emotions can be managed in the workplace, and that it is necessary to be aware of which emotions are acceptable when doing so (Saleem et al., 2022), and that job design can promote effective emotion regulation (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) and that job designs that can encourage positive emotion formation can be implemented (Arianna & Sartori, 2018). Examining whether applications used for emotion control and management can contribute to occupational health and safety is a topic for future studies.
Emotions can be triggered, generated, and shaped by other emotions, external stimuli, cognitions, and cognitive processes (Pace-Schott et al., 2019). It is stated that this interaction process can determine how individuals perceive their job, team, or organization, and can have a significant impact on their behavior in the workplace (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). As a result, positive emotions and relationships among employees can be fundamental psychological resources for creating healthy organizations (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2019). Support at the individual, group, and organizational levels in the workplace is the most effective way to develop a healthy organization (Mintzberg, 2005) and to enhance employees’ competence and creativity (K. Wang et al., 2024). Safe organizational relationships in the workplace can increase employees’ safety intentions and transform those intentions into safe behaviors (Törner, 2011).
Previous studies have indicated that poor working conditions in the workplace play a significant role in the occurrence of workplace accidents (Feyer & Williamson, 1991). Management practices directly shape the conditions for workplace accidents by creating an environment conducive to errors arising from employee knowledge gaps. It is possible to provide better training to improve job-related knowledge, improve rules, and even develop problem-solving skills. The workplace practices and work organization that the company has maintained for years may be among the causes of workplace accidents (Feyer et al., 1997). To prevent accidents, the way work is performed, and employees’ knowledge of their job descriptions should be improved.
A safe working environment is defined in parallel with the safety function. The safety function is defined as a combination of technical, organizational, or operational measures that can reduce the likelihood of accidents or undesirable events occurring in a system or mitigate their adverse consequences (Harms-Ringdahl, 2009). Given that the study’s results are consistent, it should not be overlooked that technical and organizational measures must be taken to ensure a safe working environment, and that occupational safety practices must be embedded in the organizational culture and behaviors.
Employees may be expected to work harder and exert more effort, both physically and psychologically, regardless of whether the demands come from internal or external sources. This situation affects employees’ psychological resilience (Tohum, 2025). Resilience is a psychological factor that increases an employee’s ability to cope with difficulties, enabling them to deal with external threats and work pressure (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2007), while contributing to reduced negative feelings and distress (Egozi Farkash et al., 2022; Mak et al., 2011). The study’s finding that an increased perception of stimulus impact diminishes positive emotions may encourage research on increasing employee resilience, thereby helping prevent negative emotional states.
Limitations
The research was applied to male operators working in a specific environment (excluding excavators, loaders, carriers, stackers, etc.). It is important to identify employees who work in the same environment and perform the same job as defined in their job descriptions, as they share similar characteristics and are exposed to similar sources, which could lead to different responses to the survey questions. Applying the research to a specific work area resulted in limitations in the data obtained. The assessment was conducted within the PAD framework for emotional state detection. Physical (physiological) responses that may result from emotional arousal were excluded. Although participation in the study was voluntary, participants’ willingness and the personal approaches they used when answering questions were limited.
Future Research
Studies could be conducted to evaluate female operators. With minor changes to the scale’s content, it could be applied to different work groups. Emotion typologies could be incorporated into risk analysis methods to more effectively assess employees’ emotional states. Future studies could evaluate the effects of active ingredients and emotions. Evaluating physiological responses alongside emotional states may contribute positively to occupational health and safety in future studies. This approach could also pave the way for examining emotional states in accident root cause investigations.
Conclusion
Employees are an important internal source of strength and the most valuable weapon businesses have to cope with external challenges (Carnevale & Hatak, 2020). This is also important for employee protection. Within the scope of legal regulations and occupational safety management systems, identifying workplace hazards and taking the necessary safety measures is mandatory. There is no legal requirement regarding the method used to conduct these assessments. Employers may choose the methods that are most suitable for their workplaces and specific tasks. The present study evaluated the effect of emotional arousal on employee behavior. The IMKO, IDTO, and UDTO scales were specially designed for this purpose and have been shown to be valid and reliable. The study found that as operators’ perceptions of the stimuli increased, their positive emotions decreased significantly. The resulting emotional state had no significant effect on employees’ responses. Therefore, it was determined that emotions did not mediate the interaction between stimulus and response. Additionally, it was found that operators’ responses increased significantly as their perception of the stimuli increased. Additionally, various assessments were made, and recommendations were offered to ensure a safe working environment.
Our study concluded that while the active ingredients were effective in influencing emotion formation, no significant relationship was found between emotional arousal and response. This suggests that different emotions may arise in individuals and that the ability to cope with emotional states may be developed, while also indicating that the results may be influenced by characteristics specific to the company where the task was performed. Studies conducted across different companies may yield different results due to differences in organizational structure, approaches, and practices.
Developing an Internal Safety Culture
Successful employees often contribute to a positive safety culture within the organization. They are more likely to actively participate in safety programs, report hazards, and encourage their colleagues to prioritize safety. By fostering a safety culture, they contribute to a safer, healthier workplace by improving physical and psychological well-being and promoting compliance with safety protocols (Z. Wang et al., 2024).
A safe and stable work environment prevents employees from exhausting their psychological resources and can enhance their ability to manage their emotions. (Dollard et al., 2012; Mirza et al., 2022). Organizations should pay attention to the mental health of their employees and take active measures to reduce their psychological burdens (Dollard & Bailey, 2021; Shockley et al., 2012), reduce uncivil behavior in the workplace, demonstrate respect and appreciation-focused approaches, create a collaborative workplace culture, and provide physical comfort and safe workplaces.
Developing Organizational Culture and Institutional Memory
A negative environmental impact can be as powerful as the combined effect of multiple factors. It can negatively affect high-level responses (emotional evaluation and behavioral intention) elicited by multiple stimuli, but it can strengthen memory (Schreuder et al., 2016). If these events are recorded in the evaluation methods to be implemented, important inputs can be obtained for occupational health and safety practices and corporate memory.
Organizational culture refers to the beliefs and principles that an organization adopts. The organization’s culture profoundly impacts employees and their relationships (Schein, 2010). Organizational culture is also reflected in organizational policies and aims to control activities that involve the emotional behaviors expected of employees (Ashkanasy, 2015). For the sake of occupational health and safety, properly analyzing emotional states, ensuring their control, and increasing improvement policies will contribute positively to reducing material/moral damage, preventing workforce loss, and avoiding production disruptions. However, while this may provide immediate solutions, transforming it into what is called emotion management (managing the display of emotions) and suppressing employees’ emotions in the workplace and creating policies in this direction will have negative effects on employee attitudes, psychology, and performance in the long run (Grandey, 2003; Hochschild, 1983). When emotional responses accumulate over time, they can affect a person’s overall feelings about work (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey & Gabriel, 2014). Therefore, examining and managing employees’ emotions can make significant contributions to workplace sustainability, helping protect workplaces and employees. In this context, providing psychological support to employees in the workplace can encourage the creation of safe working environments.
Development of Management Processes and Procedures
Leadership workflow, which is part of the management process, and the organization’s validity are important factors for employee performance, production continuity, and maintaining quality. When the psychological impact of leadership on employees is also taken into account, developing not only employees but also managers within the scope of legal regulations, technological innovations, and management developments can yield positive contributions for the company, employees, and occupational health and safety practices.
Learning is defined as an individual acquiring new skills and knowledge and transforming them into the ability to apply them (Abid et al., 2019; Nurhuda et al., 2023). Recognizing workplace hazards is an important part of training, as it enables employees to learn ways to protect themselves and their coworkers (Roughton & Mercurio, 2002). Learning triggers development, enabling employees to achieve a higher level of professional, physical, and psychological well-being (Feeney & Collins, 2015; Sahin et al., 2021). Increasing employee participation and training opportunities through knowledge sharing can also contribute to occupational health and safety. It can contribute to more accurate procedures, safety instructions and guidelines, risk analyses, and accident/incident assessments. This collected information can be converted into knowledge capital more efficiently by managers within organizations (Duryan et al., 2020), significantly influencing and improving problem-solving and decision-making stages in occupational health and safety.
Employees may exhibit improvisational behaviors to cope with environmental uncertainties and emerging problems (Mannucci et al., 2020; Su et al., 2022). Such behaviors may lead to deviations from established production procedures and practices, resulting in dangerous practices and undesirable outcomes. From this perspective, workplace instructions and guidelines should be clear and understandable, and this information should be shared with employees. Clear job descriptions within the workplace and teaching employees how to respond in emergency situations through practical drills should be considered beneficial practices.
When effort is expended and negative outcomes occur, attributing these outcomes to causes perceived as uncontrollable, persistent, or unchangeable can lead to lower expectations of future success, feelings of hopelessness, and reduced behavioral effort (Higgins et al., 2012). In such situations, management that develops appropriate alternatives to the “Nothing will change anyway” mindset can help improve employees’ physical and psychological well-being and create safe working environments. Solution-focused approaches should be considered, as they positively influence employees’ perceptions of danger and emotional states, thereby fostering responses conducive to safe working practices.
Footnotes
Ethical Considerations
The Social and Human Sciences Research Ethics Review Committee at Yildiz Technical University approved our interviews (approval: 2023.06) on June 1, 2023. Respondents gave written consent for review and signature before starting interviews.
Consent to Participate
The participants of the study were informed about the study by applying the “Voluntary Participation Consent Form.” With the help of the form, information was provided about the purpose of the study, the confidentiality of personal data and the use of data, and the participant’s consent for the use of their information was signed. Thus, the participants’ consent was obtained for the processing, publication and publication of the obtained data. Except for demographic data; personal medical information such as description of symptoms and conditions, medical procedures/treatments and recovery; genetic pedigrees and other personal genetic information; photographs; images; videos; voice and other recordings; or any other personal representation was not used.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
Author Disclaimer
While the authors and publisher believe that the information in the work is correct, all parties must rely on their own skill and judgment when making use of it. Neither the authors nor the publisher assumes any liability for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause.