Abstract
Various forms of media have become the primary channels through which people access social information. Previous studies have shown that media use plays a vital role in residents’ moral evaluation of society. However, the specific mechanisms behind this relationship remain unclear. This study used data from the Chinese General Social Survey 2013 to explore how moral anomie mediates the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation of society, and how generation moderates this link. The findings revealed significant generational differences in Internet use, moral anomie, and moral evaluation among Chinese residents. Internet use had a notably negative association with moral evaluation, and moral anomie partially mediated the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation. Furthermore, generation moderated the indirect path between Internet use and moral anomie as well as moral anomie and moral evaluation. This study would shed light on moral development in the online environment and provide insights into moral practice, enabling targeted outreach to different generational cohorts to better serve societal needs.
Introduction
The concept of morality has been a matter of enduring fascination for the public and has sparked much discourse among academics. Nevertheless, there is a lack of agreement regarding a consistent declaration on the concept of “moral decline” or “moral progress” (Brockett et al., 1997; Halman, 1995; Putnam, 2000). Baker (2013) suggested that the perceived decline in morality may be due to changes in perception rather than an actual decline. People may keep the perspective of moral decline, even though the moral terrain is favorable (Eibach & Libby, 2009). In turn, the study on moral decline turns to subjective perceptions of it instead of objective reality, witnessing a shift from ontology to epistemology (Buckley et al., 2000).
The critical impacts of media exposure in recent decades have entangled the debate. With the development of technology and the proliferation of media use, the relationship between media and morality has attracted increasing scholarly attention. Various media platforms have increasingly become channels through which people access social information and further shape individuals’ perceptions of the society they live in; consequently, whether and how media use influences moral evaluation has become a new focus of scholarly discussion. For instance, application of AI Technology in Short Video News and Media Ethical Anomie (Jiang & Wei, 2025), impact of modernization and value change (Gong, 2026), anomie of media ethics under the background of media integration (Yu, 2022), using traditional media positively relates to moral evaluation, and religious identity would moderate the relationship (Zeng et al. 2021). In contrast, Cohen (2011) asserted that the mass media were the most critical set of agents contributing to moral panics. More recently, the ubiquitousness of the internet marked the appearance of new media. Scholars constantly identified the moral development issues resulting from the usage of information technology, such as moral disengagement, network anomie, and desensitization to violence (Akello et al., 2024; Dong et al., 2023; Yang, 2022). However, moral evaluation in the online environment is explored less, especially in the Chinese context.
The association between internet use and moral anomie has emerged as a significant field of research, as digital environments affect moral views and societal norms (Yang, 2022). Moral anomie, characterized as a lack of norms or a disintegration of a collective comprehension of moral principles, is frequently increased by the attributes of online environments. Research findings indicate that the unregulated nature of online platforms, particularly social media, facilitates the proliferation of unethical activities and controversial content, hence distorting users’ perceptions of societal norms (Liu et al., 2020). These results indicate that a greater dependence on the Internet for information and interactions with others correlates with a heightened likelihood of moral disorientation, as the online environment frequently amplifies the appearance of negative or immoral activities. This may result in the erosion of conventional moral structures and an intensified perception of moral deterioration, thereby contributing to a broader sense of societal decline.
Moreover, numerous studies have emphasized the impact of generational disparities on the experience of moral anomie about Internet usage. Research findings indicate that older generations exhibit increased susceptibility to moral anomie, mostly attributable to their poor digital literacy and a more substantial attachment to traditional values (Finkelstein et al., 2023). Older persons may struggle to critically assess the massive flow of information and the perceived moral degradation presented online, exposing them more vulnerable to the negative effects of Internet usage. In contrast, younger generations, despite being more digitally educated, are not completely impervious to the unsettling impacts of online information. Although younger individuals are more adept at navigating digital spaces, they can still experience moral anomie when repeatedly exposed to excessive negative content, such as violence, hate speech, or immoral behaviors that are prevalent in online interactions (Akello, 2024).
In addition, regarding the associations between internet use and moral evaluation and moral anomie, a dearth of research was found. It is noticeable that there are generational differences in technology use (Volkom, 2014), specifically in Internet use (Helsper, 2010). These generational distinctions are often framed around the notion of digital natives, referring to generations that have grown up immersed in digital technologies. However, the digital native theory is being challenged, with empirical evidence indicating that age-based assumptions may oversimplify differences in digital abilities, usage patterns, and critical engagement with technology (Bennett et al., 2008). Building on this argument allows for a more nuanced understanding of how generational positioning, rather than deterministic age categories, influences biases, competencies, and moral orientations in internet use.
Meanwhile, Generational theory and empirical research suggest that unique cohort experiences may affect ethical values, moral judgments, and ethical ideology (Buss, 1974; Ramsey et al., 2007; VanMeter et al., 2013). However, existing studies have not considered generational differences to examine how generation interacts with internet use to influence moral evaluation. Additionally, existing research on the relationship between media and moral evaluation is limited to theoretical analyses at the discursive level; its conclusions remain inconsistent and inconclusive. The current research seeks to bridge the gap through a threefold approach. First, the study aims to explore whether Internet use has a significant impact on moral evaluation toward society in China. Second, the study tested whether moral anomie would mediate the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society. Third, we tested whether the direct and indirect relationships between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society were moderated by generation.
Previous Literature and Theory
Moral Socialization
Moral socialization refers to the process of learning moral norms, internalizing moral values, and developing moral sentiments by members of society through social interaction (Gibbs & Schnell, 1985; Killen & Smetana, 2015; Snarey & Pavkov,1991). Moral socialization contributes to individual moral development and offers fundamental means of social integration. In this process, the “self” is established. Meanwhile, the moral qualities of individuals are formed and perfected, representing the transformation from a biological person to a social person (Kohlberg & Hersh, 1977). According to social learning theory, the essence of moral socialization is that moral behavior is acquired and can be changed through learning, while the social environment is the determining factor in moral behavior (Bandura & National Institute of Mental Health, 1986). The moral development of individuals results from their socialization process, in which who plays the role of the agent of socialization is a critical factor. Family, school, community, church, and media are all important agents of the moral socialization of an individual (Gaisina et al., 2015). Bidwell (1972) found that schooling, as a crucial carrier for social control and structured activities, has a significant influence on students’ moral commitment. Brody and Shaffer (1982) proposed that parents and peers play an important role in children’s moral socialization and that children gradually develop their moral judgments in their interactions with parents and peers. In a case study of rock music, Leming (1987) found that popular culture, especially popular music, had a vital impact on the moral socialization of adolescents. Fung (1999) examined the influence of parental beliefs and behaviors concerning shame on children’s engagement in shaming activities in an ethnographic study. Through a long-term observation of nine middle-class Taiwanese families, Fung found that children’s socialization of shame began as early as two and a half years old. Moreover, children’s sense of shame is influenced by their parents’ evaluations and would adjust due to parental motivation. Thus, it is noticeable that the social environment in which individuals live plays an important role in their moral socialization process. The rapid development and popularization of media technology accelerated mediated socialization. Media provide a pseudo-environment in which people increasingly rely to perceive their surrounding society, and, as a result, media have become an important factor influencing people’s social attitudes and behaviors (John, 1999). As an agent of socialization, the media expose the population to diverse information and social events related to morality, affect individuals’ moral judgments (Eyal & Kunkel, 2008), moral development (Krcmar & Locke, 2020); and even influence morality cultures (Tamborini, 2012).
Internet Use and Moral Evaluation
According to Kelley (1971), moral evaluation refers to “the process by which people make the evaluation of people’s behavior” (p. 293). While in Rest’s (1986) four-stage ethical decision-making model, moral evaluation/judgment is the reaction to moral issues. It involves the moral activity of people living in a certain social context and making value judgments on thoughts and behaviors of themselves or others to express personal positive or negative attitudes. As an important part of moral development, moral evaluation is at the heart of moral socialization, which is indispensable to adjusting and regulating moral behavior to maintain social stability and order. Although it is widely accepted that criteria are the basis of moral evaluation (Graham et al., 2013), there is no consistent and general view regarding what the criteria should involve (Wellman et al., 1979). Further, for individuals, moral evaluation criteria may change in different life stages (Caravita et al., 2017). Hence, moral evaluation activities are inherently complicated. To illuminate understanding of the mechanism of moral evaluation, scholars have conducted extensive studies on the driving factors of moral evaluation, including moral intensity (May & Pauli, 2002), gender (Mears et al., 1998), media exposure (Rule & Ferguson, 1986), etc.
The rapid development and popularization of media technology accelerated mediated socialization. Media create pseudo-realities that impact individuals’ moral attitudes and behaviors, as well as their evaluation of social morality. Gerbner (1998) posited that frequent exposure to television may contribute to the viewers’ changeable attitudes toward the reality shaped by the media. According to cultivation theory, the media constructs people’s perceptions of the world. Those who excessively use media believe that our society is just as it is displayed in the media. The public’s perceptions of the status of morality in society rely heavily on the content of the media reports (Gerbner et al., 2002). Specifically, Tamborini et al. (2010) found that long-term exposure to media content in soap operas leads to a change in viewers’ moral attitudes. Subsequent research illustrated that short-term exposure to traditional media, such as situational comedy and courtroom drama, may impact moral judgment (Tamborini, 2012).
Moral Anomie
Moral anomie primarily refers to expressions that conflict with social morals (Hilbert, 1986). In the context of internet use, it indicates the failure to guide behavior in the digital environment (Yang, 2022). Moral anomie, defined as the breakdown of societal norms, emerges when internet users engage in acts that depart from established moral standards, typically due to the characteristics of online environments, such as anonymity and rapid information transmission. Internet use has been linked to reduced moral anomie. Durkheim defined moral anomie as the breach of norms (Tenhouten, 2016). Anomie is characterized by a pathological indicator of social integration, an inherent tension during modern social development, and aberrant phenomena inside contemporary industrialized society. The connotation of anomie can be categorized into macro and micro levels based on the preceding analysis. Macro-level anomie refers to the deterioration of social norms and the stability of institutional frameworks and social order, namely, the fragmentation of the system of social norms. Micro-level anomie primarily pertains to the anomic behaviors that social groups or individuals exhibit, specifically the departure or transgression of social standards. Thus, the anomie of online expression is a micro-level anomie, indicating that users’ expressions deviate from established norms and adversely affect social ethics or discipline (Zhou & Jing, 2019). By introducing the concept of “Moral Fog,”Cocking and van den Hoven (2018) asserted that the internet obfuscates moral norms and ethical standards and provides an environment inspiring immoral behavior. At the same time, information and communication technology may promote individuals engaging in immoral behaviors by providing affordances for moral disengagement (Runions & Bak, 2015), enabling them to justify their immoral behaviors online (Bauman, 2010).
This study expands Durkheim’s definition of anomie by focusing on moral anomie, defined as a condition in which common moral norms become weakened, fractured, or ambiguous rather than completely absent (Marks, 1974). In contrast to moral disengagement, which refers to individual-level rationalizations for unethical behavior, moral anomie involves broader normative uncertainty shaped by social systems. It is also distinct from moral relativism, which implies a conscious rejection of universal moral principles. Moral anomie arises in the digital context as a result of constant exposure to multiple, and frequently contradictory, moral narratives via online media, where algorithmic amplification and interactive communication undermine traditional moral boundaries (Yan & Peng, 2025). This concept, which draws on cultivation theory, explains how prolonged exposure to digital media environments might, over time, normalize moral ambiguity, contributing to the internalization of anomic moral orientations.
This study defines moral anomie by assessing individuals’ attitudes toward immoral conduct in society. This method is intended to convey a sense of weak or ambiguous moral rules rather than personal moral judgment. However, it may overlap with broader assessments of social problems, such as crime or corruption, potentially introducing measurement bias. Recognizing this conceptual overlap, the research interprets the data as indicators of perceived moral dysfunction at the social level, rather than a direct assessment of individual ethical evaluation. This distinction clarifies the construct’s broadness while acknowledging its operational constraints.
Hypothesis and Conceptual Research Model Development
Internet Use and Moral Evaluation
The media’s news reporting is not a mirror of reality, but a reconstruction of the world, and all reproduction is selective. The media describe the cases but do not necessarily show their true nature (Macdougall, 1988). That is, media not only present reality but also has its value bias, such as a preference for negative news and labeling “abnormal” social events or issues. This phenomenon is supported by Rozin and Royzman’s (2001) negativity bias theory, which holds that people may be much more engaged by negative information when making judgments than by positive information. Thus, negative events may pique more interest than positive ones. To attract more attention, the media may show more negative content, such as immoral behaviors. At the same time, it was found that exposure to negative news is positively related to information search (Park, 2015). Eden et al. (2014) also argued that continuous exposure to morality-related information may affect moral judgment. Therefore, the media’s preference and the audience’s biased attention to negative events allow people to obtain more information about unethical behaviors, which, in turn, is more likely to exacerbate perceptions of immoral behavior. The popularity of computers and smartphones brought about an information explosion. Human beings have been increasingly exposed to various immoral information presented on digital media owing to the accessibility of the internet. Hence, it is posited that those with more internet access may be much more vulnerable to unethical reports and, in turn, present lower moral evaluation. Therefore, the hypothesis is that:
Moral Anomie, Internet Use, and Moral Evaluation
Moral anomie can be positively associated with internet use. According to Durkheim, moral anomie refers to the violation of norms (Tenhouten, 2016). By introducing the concept of “Moral Fog,”Cocking and van den Hoven (2018) asserted that the Internet obfuscates moral norms and ethical standards and provides an environment inspiring immoral behavior. At the same time, information and communication technology may promote individuals engaging in immoral behaviors by providing affordances for moral disengagement (Runions & Bak, 2015), enabling them to justify their immoral behaviors online (Bauman, 2010). Funk et al. (2004) found that long-term exposure to violent video games reduces children’s empathy and moral rationality, which in turn desensitizes the children to pro-violent attitudes. Extensive internet use may predict vulnerability to distorted norms, leading to individuals defying social norms. The popularity of internet use renders more people perpetrators or victims of a series of immoral behaviors, such as cyberbullying, phishing, and fake news spreading in cyberspace. Meanwhile, as aforementioned, the dissemination of online media has accelerated the spread of unethical online behaviors, along with other immoral events. As a result, more exposure to the Internet accounts for a lower moral evaluation of society. Hence, the hypothesis is that:
Generation Relationships Between Internet Use, Moral Anomie, and Moral Evaluation
According to generational theory, a cohort of people living in a certain period may embrace similar ethics and ethical values (VanMeter et al., 2013), which results in diverse attitudes toward ethical behaviors among different generations. In terms of internet usage, there is a generational divergence in motivations, usages, and attitudes (Ignatius & Hechanova, 2014). Specifically, Gattiker & Kelley (1999) found that the older generation is more likely to be in a moralizing perspective than the younger generation. However, when exploring specific morality-relevant behaviors, there are inconsistent findings which illustrate that there is no difference by generation as for the perception of immoral behavior, cheating, while significant differences were found in regards to fabrication and taking shortcuts among diverse generational groups (Wotring & Bol, 2011). Despite no empirical research on generational differences in moral evaluation and moral anomie across cohorts, given the unique values and behaviors, people from different generational groups may exhibit different behaviors in the online space and evaluate moral or immoral behaviors based on different criteria. Therefore, generation may act as a moderator for the direct and/or indirect relationship among internet use, moral anomie, and moral evaluation.
Taken together, the purposes of the current research were threefold. First, the study explores whether Internet use has a significantly negative impact on moral evaluation toward society. Second, the study tested whether moral anomie would mediate the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society. Third, we examined whether the direct and indirect relationships between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society were moderated by generation (Figure 1).
The proposed moderated mediation model.
Method
This study used a quantitative approach, based on data from the 2013 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), to evaluate the association between Internet use, moral anomie, and moral evaluation, with an emphasis on generation role as moderators. Descriptive statistics and bivariate analysis (chi-square analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and regression analysis) were executed to examine the generational difference in Internet use, moral anomie, moral evaluation, confounders, and covariates.
Participants
The data for this study were derived from the China General Social Survey (CGSS) conducted in 2013. CGSS2013 is an annual representative sample survey of China’s urban and rural households, managed by the Department of Sociology at Renmin University of China and the Survey Research Center at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. The survey employed a multistage hierarchical Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling method to gather its data. Initially, 100 counties/districts were selected from across the country, along with five major cities: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen, which served as the primary sampling units. Within these areas, 480 communities/villages were chosen by random sampling. Each community/village had 25 households selected at random, and within each household, one individual was chosen as the subject of the survey using the Kish table method. The survey resulted in a total of 11,438 completed questionnaires, collected through face-to-face interviews. This comprehensive sampling strategy ensured a diverse and representative dataset that covered both rural and urban populations across China, including specific focus on major metropolitan areas. To ensure the accuracy of statistical analysis and the reliability of the findings, the study focused exclusively on cases where all variables in the model were fully reported, thereby excluding any samples with missing data. Consequently, the final dataset comprised 5,140 valid cases.
Measures
Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is moral evaluation of society. Following Zeng et al (2021), the relevant question raised by CGSS in 2013 is as follows: “How satisfied are you with the current moral situation of our society?” A Likert 5-point scale was used for each score (1 = very satisfied to 5 = very dissatisfied). To ensure consistency in the data analysis process, we recorded the score (1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied). A higher score indicated a higher moral evaluation of society. This indicator was used because it reflects respondents’ comprehensive evaluation of the current society and has better statistical reliability, validity, and psychometric adequacy.
Independent Variable
The independent variable of the model is Internet use. The relevant question presented in the 2013 CGSS was as follows: “How often did you use the Internet (including mobile Internet) over the past year?” A Likert 5-point scale was used for each score (1 = never to 5 = very often). A higher score indicated a higher frequency of Internet use. In addition, following Gong et al (2020), Internet use is treated as a dummy variable (1 = use, 0 = not use) to check the robustness of the relation between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society.
Mediating Variable
The mediating variable is moral anomie. We mainly measure moral anomie by examining the personal perception of the severity of immoral behavior in current society. The relevant question presented in the 2013 CGSS was as follows: “How serious do you think the following immoral behaviors in the current society are?” Ten items can effectively measure people’s moral anomie based on their own cognition of the immoral behaviors of the current society. A Likert 5-point scale was used for each score (1 = not disgusted to 5 = very disgusted). Principal component factor analysis was deployed to extract a common factor from these ten sets of questions, namely, the perceived level of pollution (KMO = 0.889, Cronbach’s α = .844). The rotated standardized factor loadings of the observable variables are shown in Table 1. The mean of 10 items is the index of moral anomie in this study. A higher score indicated a higher anomie of social moral.
Standardized Factor Loadings of the Observable Variables.
Moderator
The moderating variable is generation difference. Referring to Shah et al. (2001), and Coleman and McCombs (2007) for the generational division method, we divided the generations into three categories: the first being the Civic Generation, aged 55+, assigned a value of 0; the second being the baby boomer generation, aged 35 to 54, assigned a value of 1; and the third being Generation X, aged 18 to 34, assigned a value of 2. This study uses existing age categories primarily to enable comparability with previous research, rather than to blindly apply Western cultural labels. In the Chinese sociocultural environment, different generational cohorts have distinct historical and social experiences, including differences in economic conditions, media systems, and access to digital technology (Li, 2020). As a result, the classification reflects significant differences in patterns of media exposure, technology socialization, and moral judgment across age categories. The usage of these categories is thus analytically driven and contextually justified.
Confounders
Confounders such as traditional media use, subjective well-being, and public-private interests were modeled in this study because research has suggested that these factors influence moral evaluation toward society (Ki & Kim, 2019; Johnson & Johnson, 1981; Croteau & Hoynes, 2006; Shah et al., 2005). Traditional media included newspapers, magazines, radio, and television. The relevant four questions were as follows: “In the past year, how frequently have you used newspapers, magazines, radio, and television?” A Likert 5-point scale was applied for each score (1 = never to 5 = very often). A mean score was calculated for the four media sources, and a higher mean value indicated a higher frequency of using traditional media. Moreover, following Huerta (2021) and Qi et al. (2022), this study mainly measures subjective well-being using the perception of life dimension. The relevant question was as follows: “In general, do you feel that your life is happy?” A Likert 5-point scale was used for each score (1 = ever unhappy to 5 = very happy). A higher score indicated a higher degree of subjective well-being. Finally, Public-private interests refer to an individual’s moral inclinations between selflessness and favoritism. The relevant question was as follows: “If there was an initiative in your organization that would improve collective welfare and benefit you personally but would cause environmental pollution or social harm, would you report it?” 0 = no, representing a tendency for private benefit; 1 = yes, simplifying a tendency for public goods.
Covariates
Based on the literature review, the control variables selected in this study included demographic variables and socioeconomic status variables. Demographic variables include age (year), gender (1 = female, 0 = male), religious belief (1 = belief, 0 = no belief), nationality (1 = Han nationality, 0 = other), residence (1 = urban, 0 = rural), household registration (1 = agriculture, 0 = non-agriculture) and, marital status (1 = married, 0 = unmarried) and education attainment (1 = elementary school or below, 2 = junior high school, 3 = high school, 4 = college and above). Socioeconomic status was evaluated by family economic status and subjective social status. The family economic status is measured by the respondents’ self-evaluation of the family economic status at the local level (1 = far below the average level, 5 = far above the average level). A higher score represents a higher family’s economic status. Subjective social status is measured by participants’ self-evaluation of their overall social status level (range: 1 = lowest level to 5 = highest level). The higher score indicated a higher self-evaluation of social status.
Data Analysis
To test the hypotheses, we conducted a series of analyses. First, descriptive statistical analysis and correlations were involved. We used bivariate analysis (chi-square analysis, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to examine the generational difference in Internet use, moral anomie, moral evaluation, confounders, and covariates. Second, both OLS and ordered probit regression were applied to explore the association of Internet use on moral evaluation toward society. Third, the PROCESS macro for SPSS (Model 4) was applied to examine the mediating association of Moral anomie (Hayes, 2017). Fourth, the PROCESS macro (Model 59) was applied to investigate the moderating association of generation on the direct and indirect links between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society. Finally, the bootstrap confidence intervals (CIs) determine whether the effects in Model 4 and Model 59 are significant, based on 5,000 random samples (Hayes, 2017). An association was regarded as significant if the CIs did not include zero. One advantage of the bootstrap method is that it does not require the normal distribution assumption. Thus, it provides a more robust test than traditional methods based on formulas with a normality assumption (Hayes, 2017). In all analyses, we controlled for relevant covariates (i.e., gender, age, and family socioeconomic status) by entering them as predictor variables into regression equations.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Table 2 reports the means and standard deviations of the variables and gives the results of significance tests to compare means between different generation groups. The results show that compared with Baby Boomers and the Civic Generation, Generation X had lower moral evaluation toward society, higher moral anomie, and frequency of Internet use. This difference is statistically significant at the 1% level, indicating a significant generational difference in Chinese residents’ internet use, moral anomie, and moral evaluation toward society. Statistically significant differences were found between different generation groups in a range of variables, including gender, residence, religious belief, marital status, education, family economic status, subjective social status, traditional media use, and subjective well-being, as revealed by the comparative analysis. Compared to Baby Boomers and the Civic Generation, Generation X was more likely to be female, live in urban communities, be married, have higher levels of education, and be less likely to hold religious beliefs. Furthermore, Generation X had higher family economic status, subjective social status, and frequency of traditional media use compared to the other groups. In contrast, Baby Boomers had the lowest level of subjective well-being when compared with both the Civic Generation and Generation X. Additionally, no significant intergenerational differences were observed in household registration, ethnic minority status, or public-private interest.
Descriptive Statistical Analysis by Generation.
p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Correlation Analysis
The Pearson correlation coefficients for the primary variables of the study are presented in Table 3. As the results showed, residents with a high frequency of Internet use were likely to have a high level of moral anomie and a low level of moral evaluation toward society. Residents with a high level of moral anomie were likely to have a low level of moral evaluation. Generation was negatively associated with moral evaluation and positively associated with Internet use and moral anomie.
Correlations Among Main Study Variables.
p < .01.
Baseline Regression Analysis
We used the OLS regression to test the influence of Internet use on residents’ moral evaluation toward society, and the substitution variable method and ordered probit regression model were used to check the robustness of the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation. Table 4 reports the estimation results for residents’ Internet use as both a continuous variable and a dummy variable, where models (1) and (3) were OLS regressions, and (2) and (4) were ordered Probit estimations. From the baseline regression results, as dummy and continuous variables, Internet use was negatively related to moral evaluation of the Chinese residents’ society. Thus, hypothesis 1 is verified.
Testing the Association of Internet Use on Moral Evaluation.
Note. Covariables included demographics and socioeconomic status.
p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Mediation Association Analysis
The mediation discussions indicate that generational differences influence how Internet use relates to moral anomie and, by extension, moral judgment. A consequence of their poorer digital literacy, older cohorts may have a stronger association with Internet exposure and perceived moral ambiguity. In contrast, younger individuals may better contextualize online content, reducing the impact of moral anomie on their moral evaluations (Purnama et al., 2021). This interpretation emphasizes how generational socialization and technological familiarity may have diverse effects on both perceptions of moral disorder and moral judgment.
We used Model 4 of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2017) to test the mediating association of moral anomie on the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society. The results of the mediation analysis are presented in Table 5. Model 1 indicated that Internet use was negatively associated with moral evaluation after controlling for confounders and covariates. Model 2 indicated that Internet use was positively associated with moral anomie. Model 3 indicated that moral anomie was negatively related to moral evaluation. Moreover, Model 3 also showed significant residual direct association between Internet use and moral evaluation. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was supported. Moral anomie partially mediated the relationship between Internet use and moral evolution (indirect association = −0.009, SE = 0.003, 95% CI = [−0.016, −0.003]). The mediation association accounts for 20.93% of the total association of Internet use on moral evaluation toward society (Wen & Fan, 2015).
Testing the Mediation Association of Internet Use on Moral Evaluation.
Note. Each column is a regression model that predicts the criterion at the top of the column.
p < .01. ***p < .001.
Moderated Mediation Association Analysis
To test the moderated mediation model, we used Model 59 of the SPSS macro-PROCESS compiled by Hayes (2017). The results of the moderated moderation test are shown in Table 6. As Table 6 shows, after controlling for the confounders and covariates. Model 1 indicated that Internet use significantly and positively predicted moral anomie, and that Internet use interacted with generation to positively predict moral anomie. For descriptive purposes, this study plotted Internet use on moral anomie separately for the elder and younger generations (1 SD below the mean and 1 SD above the mean, Figure 2). Simple slope tests showed that Internet use was less positively related to moral anomie for the younger generation than the older generation. Internet use significantly amplified the moral anomie of the elder generation (βsimple = .052, p < .001), but there was no significant relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation among the younger generation (βsimple = .020, p > .05). Model 2 showed moral anomie significantly and positively predicted moral evaluation and moral anomie interacted with generation in negatively predicting moral evaluation. For descriptive purposes, this study plotted moral anomie on moral evaluation separately for the younger and older groups (Figure 3). Simple slope tests showed that moral anomie was less negatively related to moral evaluation for the younger generation (βsimple = −.343, p < .001) than the older generation (βsimple = −.453, p < .001). Therefore, generation moderated the first part of the mediation process (the impact of Internet use on moral anomie) and the second part of the mediation process (the impact of moral anomie on moral evaluation). Therefore, Hypothesis 4a was supported. Furthermore, Internet use significantly and negatively predicted moral evaluation, but this relationship was not moderated by generation. Thus, Hypothesis 4b was supported.
Testing the Moderation Association of Internet Use on Moral Evaluation.
Note. Each column is a regression model that predicts the criterion at the top of the column.
p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Generation moderated the relationship between Internet use and moral anomie.
Generation moderated the relationship between moral anomie and moral evaluation toward society.
Discussion
In the context of mediated society, whether media use is related to moral evaluation has aroused a bulk of discussions. Still, few studies empirically examine the impact of Internet use on moral assessment in China, and the underlying mechanisms of mediation and moderation are less clear. Thus, the present study used moderated mediation to investigate the mediating role of moral anomie and the moderating role of generation. The results indicated that moral anomie mediated the link between Internet use and moral evaluation among Chinese residents, and that generation moderated the links between Internet use and moral anomie, as well as between moral anomie and moral evaluation.
The present study explored generational differences in Internet use and moral evaluations of society among Chinese residents. Our results suggest a significant generation gap in Internet use among Chinese residents. The intergenerational difference in Internet use reached significant levels as a continuous variable and as a dummy variable. Compared with the Civic Generation and Baby Boomers, Generation X had a high frequency of Internet use. Our findings suggest significant differences in Internet use, moral anomie, and moral evaluation among the three generations: Civic Generation, Baby Boomers, and Generation X. Compared with Baby Boomers and Generation X, the Civic Generation showed higher moral evaluation and lower moral anomie.
Previous studies on moral anomie examine numerous contexts, including social media comments, network programs, and daily communication. Wong (2016) conducted an analysis of the attitudes of Cantonese speakers toward tabooed words in their daily communications. She discovered that the internet, particularly the attitudes of youth speakers, tended to influence these attitudes. Other researchers concentrate on the examination of expressional anomie in network programs, as these programs are accessible to a vast audience, including adolescents. For instance, Bchir and Ben Ismail (2015) concentrated on the identification of expressional anomie in comments on social networking sites. Recent study examined how social media use influences polarized attitudes on redistribution (Jung & Lee, 2024). The findings evidenced that both informational and expressive social media use lead to polarization in redistributive attitudes. Additionally, Jost et al. (2022) found that social media has a lower impact on extreme behaviors in democratic countries with established institutional trust compared to those without.
The present study examined the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society. After controlling for demographic, socioeconomic status variables and confounders, Internet use significantly and negatively correlates with residents’ moral evaluation of society. The substitution variables method showed that the negative impact of Internet use on moral evaluation is robust. This finding supports the view that the media acts as the most significant agent of socialization (Gaisina et al., 2015) and responds to the debate on the relationship between media use and moral evaluation at the empirical level. This finding can be explained from two theoretical perspectives. One is moral socialization, in which the Internet has an essential impact on the moral socialization of individuals. Meanwhile, the usage of the Internet may also have the associations of alienation in the process of socialization (Reveley, 2013), as the traditional media (Holtz-Bacha, 1990), which empirically contributes to the discussion of moral decline. Another perspective is the moral panic theory. The Internet may trigger moral panic. The use of the Internet reinforces pessimistic perceptions of morality in current society. This study empirically verified the proposition of the moral panic theory, highlighting the influence of the media in inciting hysteria (Hall et al., 1978). This study revealed that Internet use was positively related to moral anomie and negatively related to moral evaluation toward society. Moral anomie mediated the link between Internet use and moral evaluation. The results illustrate that heavy Internet users are more likely to be in a state of moral anomie and are less likely to evaluate social morality highly.
Apart from the overall mediation association, the two separate paths of the mediation process are noteworthy. The first path indicated that Internet use was negatively associated with moral anomie. This finding supports the theoretical assumption that the Internet has an "epistemic association" in the dissemination of moral information, namely, that, in general, Internet media exaggerate the phenomenon of socially unethical behavior, which in turn reinforces the severity of the public’s perceptions of it. There is one plausible explanation that people prefer negative news rather than positive news (Soroka, 2015). Further, other characteristics of the Internet, such as the anonymity of Internet communication and the lack of a strict information gate-keeping system, make it undemanding to overstate the phenomenon of socially immoral behaviors, which in turn strengthens Internet users’ perception of those unfavorable behaviors. This is threatening the social moral construction on account of the irresistible development of Internet technology. The second path showed that moral anomie was negatively related to moral evaluation toward society. This finding is coherent with the statement that anomie is the withdrawal of moral reality and objective experience (Hilbert, 1986), which may lead to the deviation of the real status of morality and, in turn, a relatively lower evaluation of the moral society constructed by the Internet in which immoral behaviors are disseminated and exaggerated.
The final purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation of society across different generations. The findings of this study indicated that generation moderated the relationships between Internet use and moral anomie, as well as between moral anomie and moral evaluation toward society. Two specific patterns of moderation emerged: amplifying and buffering. Specifically, generation served as an amplifying factor in the association of Internet use with moral anomie. There was a significantly positive relationship between Internet use and moral anomie for the older generation, whereas there was no significant relationship between Internet use and moral anomie for the younger generation. This finding suggests that there is a significant intergenerational difference in the impact of Internet use on moral anomie. Two possible explanations are as follows. Firstly, for older generations, the digital divide may result in limited exposure to complete content, inability to evaluate online information, and restricted social support (DiMaggio et al., 2001). As a result, older generations are more vulnerable to unrealistic online information related to immoral behaviors, and this results in the perception of moral anomie. Meanwhile, the purposes of Internet use should be taken into consideration. Since older generations are more information-oriented, while the younger generation tends to engage in leisure Internet use (Zhou et al., 2014), the younger generation may have less access to negative moral information related to moral anomie cognitions than its counterpart.
In contrast, generation served as a buffer factor in the association of moral anomie with moral evaluation. This means that generation alleviates the impact of moral anomie on moral evaluation. Compared to the elder generation, the relation between moral anomie and moral evaluation was weaker for the younger generation. That is probably because the younger generation, as the dominant residents of the visual Internet, has adapted to the online environment, while the older generations, as the digital immigrants, are still the learners to acknowledge Internet language, which may be unrealistic and consequently impact their perceptions of moral anomie and judge moral behaviors.
Contrary to our expectations, the generation did not moderate the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation toward society. This finding suggests that Internet use frequency is a significant indicator of residents’ moral evaluation and that there is no significant intergenerational difference in the impact of Internet use on moral evaluation. The plausible explanation is that Internet use by all generations would contribute to the moral evaluation of the overall prevalence of the Internet in China.
Implications, Limitations, and Future Directions
Implication
This study emphasizes the importance of Internet use in altering moral evaluations and proposes that moral anomie serves as a significant mediator in this relationship. The findings show that frequent Internet use lowers moral judgments by increasing feelings of moral disintegration, with important implications for how the media influences public opinions about morality. The study’s generational differences indicate that older generations are more prone to the consequences of Internet use, presumably due to a lack of digital literacy, whilst younger generations may be more resilient. These findings highlight the importance of specialized digital literacy initiatives for older persons in mitigating the detrimental impacts of online exposure, and for policymakers to consider the Internet’s role in establishing moral norms across age groups. This study theoretically enhances our comprehension of the impact of media, especially Internet usage, on moral evaluation by identifying moral anomie as a crucial mediator and generation as a moderating variable. It supports established theories such as moral socialization and moral panic, illustrating that internet users may both influence and misrepresent moral beliefs, especially across various age demographics. The findings have significant implications for the development of specific medications aimed at mitigating the negative impacts of Internet use on moral views. Older generations, more vulnerable to moral anomie due to limited digital literacy, require programs designed to enhance online critical thinking skills. Furthermore, politicians and media authorities ought to concentrate on controlling the spread of exaggerated immoral behavior online to prevent moral panic and promote a more equitable societal discourse across generations.
Limitations and Future Directions
Some limitations should be paid attention to in this study. First, this is a cross-sectional design study. Therefore, the current research cannot determine causality. Although cross-sectional studies grounded in theory are valuable, more studies should use vertical or experimental designs to further verify the negative impact of Internet use on residents’ social and moral evaluations. Second, because of applying secondary data, there are deficiencies in the measurement and matching of some variables. For instance, solely examining the frequency of Internet use without considering more subdivided dimensions such as time, motivation, and content of Internet use fails to illustrate the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation. It is also the direction of further in-depth investigation. Finally, the sample in this study consisted only of Chinese residents, limiting the generalizability of this study. In fact, residents in different countries and regions may exhibit different behaviors when using the Internet and, at the same time, perceive and judge moral behaviors toward society according to criteria influenced by local cultures. Therefore, future studies may include residents from diverse countries and examine whether the findings in the current study can be applied to other cultures.
Despite these limitations, the current study has several theoretical and practical contributions. From a theoretical perspective, the current study further extends previous research by testing the influence of Internet use on residents’ moral evaluation toward society and illuminating the underexplored mediating role of moral anomie and the moderating role of generation in terms of the relationship of Internet use on moral evaluation through constructing a moderating mediating associations model. This will contribute to a better understanding of whether and how Internet use affects residents’ moral evaluations of society and provide a theoretical framework to strengthen social moral construction and thus improve people’s moral evaluations in the Internet age. Compared with previous studies, this study uses a large sample to examine the direct and indirect relationships between Internet use and moral evaluation of society, thereby providing sufficient statistical power to verify our results.
The theoretical contribution of this study is that it empirically analyses the influence of Internet use on citizens’ moral evaluation and its mechanisms, which response to the academic debate on whether the media has fostered moral decline, verifies the theoretical hypothesis of moral socialization and morality panic theory at the empirical level, and further enriches the theoretical research on the relationship between media and morality. Further, the findings support the intergenerational differences regarding the domains of internet use, moral anomie, and moral evaluation. It offers a more nuanced picture of the impacts of new media on moral development, providing empirical evidence for the cultivation theory in the digital era. Practically, the study provides certain theoretical suggestions on how to reduce moral anomie and improve moral evaluation toward society, such as enhancing moral education for the younger generation by emphasizing the role of parents and schools, while improving the digital literacy of the older generations through training programs. At the same time, the advancement of moral evaluation necessitates the governance of false information in the visual communities.
The study’s findings suggested that policies and educational initiatives to combat moral anomie should consider age disparities in Internet use and moral thinking. For older adults, digital literacy programs that focus on identifying misinformation, understanding online social dynamics, and critically evaluating moral content may help reduce the sense of moral uncertainty online. Integrating moral education into digital platforms, such as interactive online modules, social media campaigns, or gamified ethical training, may improve moral reasoning and resilience to contradictory or unclear norms among younger generations. Furthermore, community-based initiatives that encourage intergenerational discourse about digital ethics may help to bridge moral perception gaps and reinforce shared normative knowledge. These focused techniques are closely related to the observed moderated mediation patterns, providing practical approaches to alleviate moral anomie in digitally mediated situations.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study developed a moderated mediation model of the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluations toward society among Chinese residents. Specifically, the descriptive statistical analysis showed significant generational differences in Internet use, moral anomie, and moral evaluation among the Civic Generation, Baby Boomers, and Generation X. The baseline regression analysis showed that Internet use was an important factor in reducing residents’ moral evaluation of society. The mediation analysis showed that moral anomie mediated the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluation. In addition, the moderated mediation analysis revealed that generation moderated the indirect paths from Internet use to moral anomie and from moral anomie to moral evaluations. The above findings provide insights into the relationship between Internet use and moral evaluations toward society. Our findings extend prior research on the mediators of intergroup contact, showing the key role of perceived morality in driving the contact associations. The importance of these findings for improving intergroup relations is discussed.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Humanities and Social Sciences Fund of the Ministry of Education (grant Number: 20YJC860038); Guangdong Province Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Project (grant Number: GD24XXW03).
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.