Exploring the Instructional Strategies in Preparing Prospective Teachers to Teach Critical Thinking Skills at a Higher Education Institution in Northern Sindh,Pakistan

Abstract

Critical thinking is considered as one of the most significant skills for the graduates of today. Less attention, however, has been paid to this skill by academics and practitioners in developing countries including Pakistan. This research examines prospective teachers’ preparedness to implement critical thinking skills in their teaching when they join teaching profession. It specifically focuses on prospective teachers’ experiences at a higher education institution to elicit their understanding and awareness of CT, the strategies used to promote their CT skills, and their readiness to teach CT skills. Considering the purpose and objectives of the research, a qualitative case study approach was used. Participants of the study consisted of a total of 10 members of final-year students of the B.Ed. program of a higher education institution. The research used a purposive sampling procedure to recruit the participants. The data collection tools were semi-structured interviews and observations of teaching-learning processes. The thematic analysis procedure was used to analyze the emerging data. The study’s findings revealed that students perceive CT as strong observation skills, and consider it as a natural process where, through teachers’ guidance and support, students can gain a grip on this skill. They also identified a variety of strategies to promote CT that their teachers use. However, the prospective teachers foresee several challenges in their work contexts to implement CT skills. The study argues that by undertaking successful approaches to improve students’ critical thinking skills, we can support to overcome the possible challenges in the work context ultimately producing graduates equipped with this important skill.

Keywords

critical thinking prospective teachers teacher readiness strategies to promote CT

Introduction

The OECD Learning Framework 2030 states that education is essential for developing the values, attitudes, and knowledge that people need to contribute to and benefit from an inclusive and sustainable future (OECD, 2019). In the upcoming years, it will be crucial to develop the skills essential to collaborate with people who have diverse viewpoints, spot possibilities, and come up with several solutions to complex issues (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2021a). Thus, education must give students the tools they need to become responsible, involved, and active citizens. In the 21st century, literacy involves creating and verifying knowledge rather than only obtaining knowledge or information (OECD, 2021). This scenario necessitates an emphasis on creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration (Erdoğan, 2019). CT is given more importance with the fact that it provides a base for other important skills.

Given its high importance, there has been a growing interest in CT among academics. This includes defining, measuring, and developing CT, as well as analyzing the efficiency of various educational methodologies for developing this skill (Larsson, 2017). Studies suggest that there is greater possibility of developing CT among children in the very early years when their learning faculties are sharper and more receptive (Cáceres et al., 2020). However, due to technological advancements, the younger generation seems to be overloaded with information and the formal schooling does not give them the direction they require to be able to assess, analyze, and critically think about knowledge (Ab Kadir, 2017; McLaren, 2015). Where the current century demands CT and promoting it from the very young age, still the focus, especially in the educational settings of the developing world, is more on transferring knowledge, and information, rather than engaging students in such activities that promote CT (Sarıgöz, 2023). These conventional practical and limited focus of developing CT has long lasting impact on the lives and careers of students (Naeem & Rana, 2023). Lack of CT brings them in conflict with others. They consequently lack skills to solve problems and to live with others in peace and harmony.

Due to such importance of CT skill in the contemporary world, research on this critical area has expanded. However, certain gaps in the existing research on CT have been identified that require further attention. Studies suggest that the existing research on CT remains limited by an overemphasis on argumentative and academic writing, inconsistent definitions, and a reliance on cross-sectional or discipline-specific studies (Alexander, 2014). Although, studies in Pakistan (Aqeel et al., 2025) suggest that the outgoing graduates lack CT mainly because of the rote learning practices in schools, we lack research-based evidence related to the approaches used to teach CT at classroom. A clear need for more empirical, context-sensitive research has been identified to examine instructional practices and learning environments to understand how CT is promoted in educational settings (Jamil et al., 2023). In this background, this study aimed to explore prospective teachers’ perceptions of critical thinking, examine their experiences with the strategies used to promote CT, and identify the challenges they anticipate when applying these strategies in their future classrooms. The findings of this research have significant implications for teacher education programs as it brings forth deep insights related to preparing prospective teachers to teach CT. The results suggest that without focused preparation, new teachers may continue traditional, rote-based instructional practices, limiting students’ opportunities to develop essential CT skills.

Critical Thinking

The roots of CT stretch back to the work of the great educational philosopher John Dewey (1933), who in the early 20th century emphasized what he called’ reflective thinking’ as a vital skill for students, later being known as CT. CT is a cognitive activity that everyone engages in on a regular basis, whether consciously or unconsciously (Hotaman, 2008). Since CT is a psychological construct, it is quite challenging to come up with a standard definition (L. Chen, 2017; Liu & Pásztor, 2022). The widely cited definition of CT comes from Facione (1990) who describes it as a purposeful and reflective judgment that involves interpreting information, analyzing ideas, evaluating evidence, and drawing reasoned conclusions. It also includes the ability to make reasonable and reflective decisions by analyzing arguments, recognizing assumptions, and drawing well-supported conclusions grounded in evidence. Beyond cognitive skills, Facione conceptualizes CT as a habit of mind, involving dispositions such as inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, and a willingness to reconsider viewpoints based on new information or reasoning.

Individuals with CT competency and tendency can put these abilities, skills and habit of mind to work on a daily basis (Frazer et al., 2020). Learners who learn and demonstrate CT achieve a high level of accomplishment in the learning process. As students learn new concepts, CT enables them to apply their learning to solve problems (Yustina, 2020). Students who lack CT skills have difficulty in applying and questioning scientific concepts (Oktarina et al., 2021). CT abilities, on the other hand, assist learners to eventually grow aware of their ability to think critically and start using more control over their own goals, personality, and attention (Frazer et al., 2020).

Consequently, CT has become widely regarded as one of the four components of cognitive capacity in the 21st century scientific literature (Lombardi et al., 2022). It is expected that encouraging the growth of CT and problem-solving abilities, which are referred to as high-level thinking skills, will be regarded as a planned success of education in 2050 (UNESCO, 2021b). Therefore, teachers must better understand the concept of CT in order to properly integrate it into their teaching (Lombardi et al., 2022).

Promoting Critical Thinking

Literature identifies a variety of ways and strategies to promote CT. Several scholars emphasize teacher education plays a crucial role in exposing prospective teachers to CT activities. Huber and Kuncel (2016), for example, content that teacher education should place a greater emphasis on how to promote CT in primary schools. Small-group discussion, role-playing, problem-based, and student-led learning have been highlighted as possible and potential activities to be used during teacher training to promote CT (Liang & Fung, 2021). Lombardi et al. (2022), describe five classroom strategies that are explicitly recognized to improve CT. “Fish bowling” is the first. The trainer divides the class into an inner and outer circle. While trainees in the inner circle debate a proposition, those in the outer circle observe a pre-designated classmate (the “fish”). The participants then switch circles. Finally, all trainees reflect on their observations, promoting CT through self-monitoring (Dennicka & Exley, 1998). In this way, students reflect on their observations, developing the CT skill of self-regulation through self-monitoring.

The creative-controversy model (Ten Dam & Volman, 2004) is the second strategy for training teachers to promote CT. The trainer splits the class into four groups, which are then divided into pairs that hold opposing views on a particular topic. Each pair must build a case for their point of view and compare their thoughts and evidence to those of other partners who have prepared similar positions. This allows one to absorb new ideas, express and support one’s viewpoint, point out weaknesses, seek justification and additional proof, and openly debate “opponents.”

The “Socratic questioning” method is the third method for developing CT (Trede & McEwen, 2015). In contrast to the traditional approach, which trains teachers to impart knowledge to students, this method of questioning is based on the practice of disciplined, thoughtful dialog to train teachers to think, discuss, debate, evaluate, and analyze arguments based on their own and others’ thinking (Rahdar et al., 2018).

Fourthly, potential teachers are encouraged to participate in debates. According to Llano (2015), this is an effective teacher training tool for developing CT since it requires careful and lengthy thinking in a specific context to reach the minds of others. Through debate, the trainer encourages participants to make difficult decisions quickly using the evidence at their disposal, which they then present.

Fifth strategy is argument mapping-based instruction, also known as argument sketching or argument visualization, identified as one of the greatest training approaches for improving CT (Van Gelder, 2013). This is because structuring processes help in logical reasoning, forming a “mental image” of the entire argument, and answering particular questions regarding the relationships between propositions.

Scholars suggest a variety of other ways to develop CT. A significant strategy is considered to be the teacher questioning. According to Orlich et al. (2013), questioning is an effective method of encouraging children to think critically. Teachers’ questions are organized into two categories: lower-level questions and higher-level questions (Bloom et al., 1956). Lower-level questions, often known as accurate or real questions, require knowledge, or recall of previously provided factual material by the teacher. Higher-level questions, on the other hand, require students to manipulate previously taught content in order to construct a response. The higher-level questions go beyond memory and factual knowledge, requiring students to work harder to derive, analyze, and evaluate (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).

Reciprocal peer questioning is another strategy to promote CT. According to Simpson (cited in Zhao et al., 2016), reciprocal peer questioning is suggested as an effective method for developing CT and critical reading abilities. In reciprocal peer questioning, students work in pairs or small groups, taking turns posing and answering each other’s prepared questions. A similar strategy, as presented earlier, is debate. As a kind of active learning, debate encourages students to explore a topic thoroughly, ask probing questions, notice contradictions and mistakes, and construct evidence-based arguments (Pulungan et al., 2025). A closer strategy to develop CT is discussion. Dennicka and Exley (1998) emphasized concentrated discussion, student-led seminars, problem-based learning, and role play as specific forms of small-group education that strengthen CT, especially the core skills of interpretation.

The literature presented provides substantial clarity on what constitutes critical thinking. Likewise, numerous studies offer strategies for promoting this skill—ranging from questioning techniques and inquiry-based learning to debate and problem-solving activities—indicating that the field already holds a strong foundational understanding of both the concept and its pedagogical applications. Scholars, however, believe that most of the previous CT research has been theoretical, quantitative (measuring CT scores, for example) and conducted with in-service teachers (Jintalan & Litao, 2024). Little is known about how prospective teachers understand and experience CT in their preparation as teachers. In addition, the majority of studies conducted on CT emphasize the outcomes through standardized assessments without giving attention to the cognitive processes students use in academic situations (Yurt & Kara, 2025). Gaps have also been identified in the very conceptualization and exact boundaries of CT (Alexander, 2014). The inconsistent definitions, lack of uniform measurement tools and limited empirical research complicates the concept and practice of CT. There also appears to be a disagreement over whether CT teaching methods vary based on the subject where CT is integrated and the concept used, or whether methods are constant and adaptable across subjects and CT facets (Bellaera et al., 2021). Likewise, in studies conducted on CT, an over-concentration on writing especially in argumentative and academic contexts has been signaled (Suhartoyo et al., 2025). Yurt and Kara (2025) have also pointed to the influence of culture and context that differently shape approaches to CT. This highlights the need and importance of exploring CT in different contexts and cultures to understand how learners get exposure to different conceptualization and practice of CT. Due to these limitations of the existing studies on CT, Jamil et al. (2023) argue that more research is needed on teacher beliefs, institutional constraints, and how to reform assessments to support CT in Pakistan’s schools.

Theoretical Framework

A more comprehensive conceptualization of CT has been captured by P. Griffin et al. (2012), generally known as Griffin’s model of CT (Figure 1, below). This model highlights three essential components that promote CT development: knowledge, skill, and attitude. Griffin’s framework proposes that the interaction of knowledge, skill, and attitude contributes to the development of strong CT abilities. Individuals are more likely to engage in thoughtful analysis and decision-making when they have a solid foundation of knowledge, can use that knowledge with skills, and approach challenges with an open and receptive attitude. These aspects are developed through particular strategies at classroom level—the strategies that have been presented above.

Figure 1.

Theoretical framework adapted from P. Griffin et al. (2012).

Griffin’s CT model has widely been used as a conceptual and methodological lens to define, assess and teach CT as one of the significant competencies of the 21st century. This approach has been used to design performance tasks and to assess the development of reasoning and problem solving (P. Griffin et al., 2012). Building on the task design principles of Griffin’s model, Harding et al. (2017) implemented online interactive performance tasks to measure individual students’ collaborative problem-solving abilities, and reported that these tasks can be calibrated and scored reliably, offering stronger measurement of CT than many traditional tests. Empirical investigations using Griffin’s model found promising gains in students’ ability to interpret multiple documents, generate inferences and justify conclusions when tasks were well-scaffolded (T. D. Griffin et al., 2012). Despite these notable advances in the model, however, comparative reports indicate gaps in the use of the model owing to the varying local conditions, teachers’ limited capacity, and constraining classroom environment to apply the model (D. Chen, 2023). In addition, systematic literature reviews and policy analyses highlight inconsistent indicators of transfer of performance tasks to routine teaching practice signaling limited gains for students (Joynes et al., 2019). Lastly, while previous studies have applied P. Griffin et al.’s (2012) model to design tasks and assess CT development, most of this research has focused on student learning outcomes rather than teacher preparation. By examining how prospective teachers in Pakistan are prepared to teach critical thinking, this study addresses the gap concerning instructional readiness and the translation of CT frameworks into classroom practice.

Thus, this study is grounded in P. Griffin et al.’s (2012) model of critical thinking, which conceptualizes CT across three dimensions: knowledge, skills, and attitude. To better capture the context of our research, we extended this model by including strategies to promote critical thinking, linking theoretical constructs with practical classroom applications. This framework guided both data collection and analysis, enabling a systematic interpretation of participants’ understanding, perceptions, and proposed approaches to developing CT in real educational settings.

Research Method

Considering the purpose of this research, a qualitative research approach is used because as it allows researchers to go to real settings and personally interact with people (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Within qualitative approach, a qualitative descriptive case study was used with the understanding that this approach enables the researcher to narrow down the topic and thus to explore it in a deeper way (Yin, 2018).

The setting for the research was a higher education institute in Northern Sindh Pakistan—a relatively backward context characterized by quite low achievement of students compared with the richer provinces of Pakistan such as Punjab. The higher education institute—a public sector university—where this study was conducted—is known for quality education especially in preparing prospective teachers according to the changing demands of modern schooling. Considering the purpose of the study, prospective teachers enrolled in the teacher education program of this university representing semesters 7 and 8—the final two semesters of B.Ed program—were invited to participate in the research. We preferred students of semesters 7 and 8 with the assumptions that they have greater exposure to CT owing to their longer time in the program compared with the students representing earlier semesters.

An email was sent to all students of both the semesters, sharing the purpose of the study and requesting their voluntary participation. Considering the time constraints and manageability of data, it was decided to select five students from each semester. Those five who responded first to the email from each semester were taken as research participants. The others sending their consent late were apologized and thanked explaining the selection procedure to them.

Two major data collection tools were used, namely, semi-structured interviews and observations. Some guided questions were framed around the research questions with the intention to probe deeper into the phenomenon on the basis of their responses (McGrath et al., 2019). The interviews were conducted as focus group discussion where participants were allowed to openly share their perspectives and agree/disagree with each other. Group interviews also prompted members to recall similar experiences while listening to the stories of other members. In addition, around four lessons were observed to collect primary data on teaching and learning practices with a focus on critical thinking. The observations were recorded keeping in view the various dimensions in the theoretical framework presented earlier.

The observation notes and the transcribed interviews were organized. Initially, using the thematic data analysis framework (Braun & Clarke, 2006), both the authors coded some segments of the data together. After developing a shared understanding, the two researchers coded the remaining data separately, frequently sharing the codes for review with the other researcher for stronger reliability and validity. Next, the emerging codes were organized and searched for patterns. The emerging patterns were reviewed and grouped into overarching themes, mainly guided by the research questions and framework.

We used a couple of strategies to strengthen credibility of our results. Firstly, interviews were supported by observations that enabled the researchers to triangulate the emerging data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In addition, ongoing peer debriefing between the two researchers allowed continuous questioning, reflection, and scrutiny of interpretations (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Importantly, both the researchers were directly involved in data collection and analysis: each conducted interviews and observations, independently coded the data, and then collaboratively refined the codes and themes to enhance the rigor and trustworthiness of the interpretations.

Findings

The analysis of data emerging from interviews with participants led to five arching themes namely an understanding of CT, importance of CT for students, strategies to promote CT, Students’ readiness to promote CT, and further suggestions to promote CT at the classroom level. Data under these themes are presented and interpreted in the following sections.

Understanding of Critical Thinking

Participants interviewed for this research viewed CT in a variety of ways. One of the participants considered interest as a base for CT as “students’ interest matters most for thinking.” As this brief quote suggests, CT takes effect only when students have a personal interest in something. Unless the emotional aspect becomes operative and gets connected to the happening or occasion, CT remains inactive. For some of the participants, interest was self-created while for others interest and resultantly, “CT is a natural process.” Accordingly, thinking is common to everyone and, therefore, everyone can develop a thinking process. However, as the participants believed this process can be provoked and accelerated through guidance similar to other skills an individual develops.

A somewhat different and interesting conceptualization of CT was provided by one of the participants, who viewed CT as “perceiving things differently.” Participants holding such view further elaborated this stating that CT allows a deeper view of something—a view that is different from what it appears on the surface. Those who use CT go beyond the established patterns and generate something creative and search for logic behind everything. That is how they perceive things differently.

Almost a similar view was presented by another participant who associated CT with a “strong observation skill.” She further stated that often “we barely notice something deeply.” Those who use CT possess deep observation skills, recognize patterns, memorize and recall events, and develop connection between phenomena and theories. This is because they are keen observers.

Overall, students demonstrated a strong and nuanced understanding of critical thinking, often describing it as interest-driven, rooted in deep observation, and linked to seeing things differently. These views show that students are beginning to think beyond surface-level definitions and recognize both cognitive and emotional dimensions of CT. At the same time, their ideas highlight a tension between how they understand CT and how it is typically supported in institutional practice, where rote learning still dominates. This suggests that while students are developing meaningful insights into CT, the institute’s current approaches may not fully nurture or extend these understandings, indicating a need for more intentional and structured support for CT development.

Importance of CT to Students

Participants appeared to recognize the critical role of CT as they associated a variety of importance with this notion. They were collectively of the opinion that CT is the very much need of students in this era characterized by dramatic shifts and speedy process of change. “Those who lack and ignore CT are likely to encounter huge challenges in their life and career” a participant believed. The research participants were of the view that CT thinking provides a base for other skills, such as collaboration and communication. “Unless you possess sound CT skill, you cannot be good at collaboration and communication” one of the participants argued. The need of CT was particularly highlighted for successful survival in higher education. A participant was of the view that the students who were not exposed to CT at school level face many difficulties in higher education. She further stated that “since teaching and learning practices in our schools are mostly characterized by rote learning, students hardly develop their CT.” When these students enter higher education, they face difficulty in thinking critically for creative tasks and assignments. Thus, these students perform quite low academically.

The need and importance of CT was particularly highlighted to navigate through the bulk of information available online and accessible to students. “If we lack CT skills, it is so hard to decide which information is relevant to us and which is not,” a participant believed. The research participants were of the view that when they search something on internet, thousands of resources appear. They are then in a risk of wasting time with the irrelevant and skip the more relevant. As one of the participants revealed, “In this situation, my CT skill helps me to prioritize the most relevant ones.” Participants collectively believed that the need of CT was not limited to simply accessing the relevant resources, rather creatively using those resources also depended on their level of CT. “The way I analyze and present the information to others and write my assignments depends on the level of my CT,” a participant stated.

CT was also considered a base for problem solving. “We face so many problems in our daily life as well as in studies,” a participant shared. For them, solving these problems require CT. The research participants were of the view that at times they were overloaded with different assignments and other group tasks. CT enabled them to creatively plan their time and tasks. Otherwise, as one participant stated, “if we are not well planned, we have to rush in the eleventh hours which results in tremendous stress.” CT makes their tasks easier through enabling them to creatively address the emerging problems and to manage their time and life more effectively.

Overall, students showed a strong awareness of the importance of critical thinking, linking it to academic success, problem-solving, digital literacy, and essential skills such as communication and collaboration. Their views suggest that they clearly understand how CT helps them navigate an information-rich and rapidly changing world. At the same time, their concerns about earlier schooling—especially the dominance of rote learning—highlight a gap between what students need and what educational systems typically provide. This tension indicates that while students value CT and recognize its role in their learning and daily lives, institutional practices may not consistently equip them with the skills they deem essential. This makes it even more important to examine whether and how the institute supports the development of CT, as explored in the following section.

Strategies to Promote CT

Interviews with the research participants as well as the observations of the classroom practices revealed that many of the teachers use a variety of strategies in their classrooms to promote CT consciously or unconsciously.

One of the participants reported that teachers use the “Socratic method” in classroom where they give a platform to students to ask questions. This is more like a dialog between teacher and students that plays an effective role in learning. Through dialogs, students get exposed to a variety of ideas which further enhances their participation in dialogs and discussions. The researchers, while observing classes, witnessed several such occasions when teachers encouraged students to ask questions during as well as at the end of the lesson. As we noticed, students asked interesting and significant questions in relation to the topics under discussion.

Another participant revealed that teachers use “mock teaching” in classroom where they provide students with the opportunity to teach. For this purpose, students collect materials, analyze them find effective strategies to teach. Such opportunity enables students to recognize the strategies that are more contextual and thus more likely to facilitate learning. The researchers observed prospective teachers conducting micro teaching using low cost no cost materials. Where common teachers lack the skill and attitude to use such teaching resources in this context, it was quite encouraging to observe prospective teachers mobilizing and using such resources.

Discussion on real-life problems was another strategy shared by the participants that is likely to promote CT. Teachers were reported to give space to the prospective teachers to bring some real cases that relate to the subject for discussion which the students and teacher together try to find the solution for. Students also shared that teachers assign such assignment that are related to real life problems. “We believe that when we engage in identifying and addressing real life problems, we develop our CT,” one of the participants stated. We occasionally observed students trying to relate the theories to real life situations, though it was not a common practice. Still, there was evidence of such pedagogies that involve real life cases and examples, and are likely to promote CT among students.

Another participant shared that one of the most significant strategies to promote CT is teachers’ appreciation and encouragement of students. “Even if we make minor effort, some of the teachers highly encourage us saying that you are doing great,” a participant shared. Students believe that if their efforts are appreciated, it opens up their mind and allows them to think more, ultimately enabling them to promote their CT. As students develop interest in the process of learning through appreciation and encouragement, their ideas expand. During our observation of four lessons, we observed two teachers using this strategy – appreciating and encouraging students. Some teachers were also found giving less value to students’ responses and participation. It suggests that encouraging students is not a common practice, although some teachers are using this strategy.

Project-based learning strategy was identified as another strategy used by some teachers with a potential to promote CT. As students believed:

A project-based learning activity enables us to be part of the process from the beginning to the end. We decide on a particular focus and inquiry purpose. Then we plan for it, search, interact, collect, analyze and present. All these steps highly help us to think critically and to develop our CT.

The way students describe the process of project-based learning suggests that they are theoretically well informed of this pedagogy. Since the researchers observed only four classes during this research, no systematic inquiry-based teaching that involve specific steps was observed. However, students were observed engaged with some questions assigned by the teacher to be addressed. The space for such activities was classroom only, whereas inquiry-based projects may also involve using resources and spaces beyond classrooms.

Overall, the findings show that teachers draw on a mix of strategies—such as questioning, mock teaching, real-life problem discussions, project work, and positive encouragement—to promote CT in their classrooms. Students clearly perceive these approaches as helpful because they allow them to inquire, make decisions, and connect ideas to authentic contexts. At the same time, classroom observations suggest that these practices vary across teachers, with some strategies used consistently and others only occasionally. This variation highlights a gap between students’ interest in deeper inquiry and the extent to which inquiry-based or reflective pedagogies are systematically integrated. Together, the evidence indicates that while the institute offers meaningful opportunities for CT development, the depth and consistency of these strategies remain uneven—pointing to areas where teaching practices could be strengthened further.

Student Readiness to Promote CT

How ready the prospective teachers are to promote CT and what challenges they foresee in this regard was our next focus to ponder. One of their concerns was that they mostly get exposed to theories generating from other contexts that are not that much relevant to their context. “We learn more about ideal situations,” a participant shared. These participants were of the view that unless they learn and practice specific contextually relevant theories and models, it is challenging for them to promote CT. As one of the participants believed, “the real challenge comes when you have to perform something in real situation. Encountering such situations determine the magnitude of your CT.” They collectively believed that the institute exposes them to a variety of CT development opportunities. However, they realize the need of encountering more real situations so that they will develop skill that are more relevant to their specific contexts and real situations.

Another challenge they collectively highlighted was the learning and syllabus coverage dilemma in their respective schools. “When you are expecting to cover syllabus, it is challenging to focus on CT of students. CT requires time and exposure to a variety of activities which you cannot achieve through teacher centered method demanded for course coverage,” a participant opined. This suggests that although the prospective teachers have developed a good understanding of CT and the strategies to promote CT, they are mindful of the contextual challenges that constrain such practices.

Coupled with the course coverage issue, participants also highlighted the level of students as a barrier to developing CT among students. They shared their experience of working with students during their practicum in schools. As they revealed, students should have at least some content knowledge, literacy skills, and motivation for learning to be active part of activities that are likely to promote their CT. Many students especially in the government schools are too weak academically and possess limited motivation for learning. “It is hard to manage classroom and make them follow our instructions. In addition, they cannot read and write. How to develop CT among those students, I don’t think I am prepared for that,” a prospective teachers believed. These views of participants suggest that they are very much conscious of the real school issues, and realize that they need more practical knowledge to address these contextual challenges.

Participants also believed that to develop CT among students, an effective way is to engage them in practical work and experiments in the laboratories, for example. However, some students were of the view that they lacked proper understanding and skills to operate different tools and apparatus in science laboratories. Although, they have been given content and pedagogical knowledge of different subjects including science, they were barely engaged in science experiments to enhance their practical knowledge of conducting experiments. Limited exposure to practical activities restricts the possibilities to develop practical skills to promote CT.

Overall, the findings show that prospective teachers recognize the value of promoting CT but feel only partially prepared to do so. While they appreciate the institute’s efforts to introduce CT-related theories and strategies, they also highlight significant gaps—particularly the limited relevance of theory to their local contexts, pressure to complete the syllabus, weak student preparedness, and insufficient exposure to practical work. These concerns suggest that their readiness is shaped not only by what they learn at the institute but also by the realities they face in schools, especially during practicum. Taken together, the evidence indicates that although prospective teachers possess a solid conceptual understanding of CT, their confidence to translate it into practice remains constrained by contextual challenges and limited hands-on experience, pointing to the need for more practice-oriented and contextually grounded preparation.

Suggested Strategies to Enhance CT

Despite the challenges that the prospective teachers highlighted in promoting CT among students, they were also confident of their capacity. They shared a variety of strategies they would use to promote CT among students when they start real teaching in schools. Engaging students in reading activities was the most frequently reported strategy which the prospective teachers intended to use to develop CT skills of students. As one of the participants believed, “the more knowledge students possess, the greater their ability for CT and therefore, students should be assigned more and more reading activities.” As these participants reported, reading is an important skill that provide knowledge base for CT. When students get exposed to diverse perspectives on any topic, they are more likely to come up with the best solution in any critical situation. In the same way, other sources of knowledge development such as watching documentaries was also considered an effective strategy to promote CT. Similar to reading, watching documentaries, according to the participants, enhances knowledge that help individuals to approach a critical situation in a more informed way.

Participants were also of the view that the updated content in our curricula will also provide learners with the opportunities to be aware of current trends and alternatives to the knowledge they already possess. “If a student knows about the latest trends, he/she will approach anything considering those trends. However, our school should familiarize students with those trends,” a participant shared. They were also of the view that some topics require more thinking skills from students’ side compared to others. The more complex the topics the more thinking they require both for understanding and application. If curriculum is updated adding complex concepts, they will force students to use and thus develop their CT.

These prospective teachers seemed influenced by some of their teachers who had a positive relationship with them. Accordingly, in their real teaching, they are committed to develop good relationship with students so that they will feel at ease while interacting with them. They believe that when students feel free and get encouraged, it is more likely to open themselves which enables them to be open to more and more ideas. A safe and positive environment, for these prospective teachers, lead to enhancing the thinking skills of students. “Our minds become more functional if we feel safe. An environment of fear suppresses our thinking,” a participant believed. Building on their such understanding and beliefs, they seemed more interested in creating friendly environment in schools where students can feel safe and openly express themselves.

Coupled with the strategies which the participants commit to apply in their classroom, they also seemed ready to implement project-based learning with the understanding that this strategy has tremendous potential to develop CT among students. “Through project-based learning approach, students will be engaged to identify and address real life issues. As they work on this project, they will have great opportunity to use and develop their CT,” one of the participants stated. Thus, the prospective teachers seemed not only interested but also quite ready to use such strategies that are more likely to develop students CT.

Overall, these findings show that prospective teachers hold strong intentions to promote CT and describe a wide range of strategies they believe will be effective—from reading and documentaries to updated curricula, positive classroom relationships, and project-based learning. However, their suggestions emphasize knowledge acquisition and exposure rather than active inquiry or CT processes. This indicates that while their enthusiasm is evident, their understanding of how CT is actually developed in practice remains somewhat surface-level and content-driven. Their emphasis on safe environments and project-based work does point toward more constructivist approaches, yet these strategies may be difficult to implement without the practical experience and contextual support they previously identified as lacking. Taken together, the evidence suggests that their readiness to enhance CT is aspirational and promising, but still requires stronger grounding in pedagogical practice and sustained opportunities to translate these intentions into real classroom action.

Discussion

The current case study examined the strategies to prepare prospective teachers to teach CT. This study suggested that every participant has a unique and different understanding of CT. Everyone sees CT from a different perspective, and there is no uniform definition of CT for the participants. It has also been indicated in literature that CT is a psychological construct and therefore it is challenging to make a standard definition (Liu & Pásztor, 2022). Most interestingly participants considered CT as a natural process that relates it to innate traits which contrasts the dominant concept of the influence of environment in learning and development of various human faculties including CT. As literature shows, CT that improves the lives of individuals by making them more productive and capable of solving difficulties in their daily and professional lives, can be nurtured through educational activities (Hotaman, 2008). This finding is critical and requires greater attention with the fact that teachers who believe ability is innate are less likely to adopt active learning strategies (Aragón et al., 2018). Unless prospective teachers, who believe CT is innate, revisit their understanding, they are improbable to engage students in activities that promote CT.

Although some participants believed CT to be an innate ability, the majority of them were of the view that this skill can be promoted through purposefully created environment and strategies. According to them, CT develops speedily in the early years through exposure to creative activities in schools and at home. If the early years of the participants were not favorable to develop their CT, they face greater challenges in their academics at later stage owing to their lack of this important skill (Zondo et al., 2025). Most of the participants narrated examples form their own education in the early years, presenting it mainly memory driven. Consequently, they now face greater challenges in adapting to the activities and situation that require CT. One example was their lack of ability to critique or question something. This experience resonates with literature which shows that students who lack CT face difficulty in making comments and asking questions mainly related to scientific subjects (Oktarina et al., 2021).

Participants identified a variety of strategies they have experienced that are likely to develop CT among students. These strategies or classroom activities included group work, presentations, mock teaching, questioning, dialogs, readings, and project-based learning activities. In addition, participants identified teacher’s encouragement and appreciation as significant strategies to promote CT. Whenever, teachers appreciated their efforts, they smoothly navigated through complex ideas and situations that further enhanced their CT. Studies suggest that when teacher believe students can develop CT, they provide them with the opportunities to practice and improve CT (Choy & Cheah, 2009). In this sense, teachers’ own beliefs about students are the most significant determiners of students’ CT. The deficit beliefs of teachers regarding students’ abilities not only restrict the provision of CT opportunities but also lead to students’ reduced motivation and interest ultimately barring creativity and thinking (Leibovitch et al., 2025).

It was encouraging to note that the strategies identified by the research participants as promoting CT were indeed being used by the teachers in the classrooms where this study was conducted. The researchers personally observed prospective teachers being engaged in group work, presentations, questioning, debates, and other active learning activities. It suggests that enrolled in this institute are more likely to develop CT. Since participants experienced these strategies having potential to develop their CT, they expressed excitement and optimism about applying these strategies with their students when they begin teaching.

Although students identified a variety of potential strategies to promote CT in schools, they were also mindful of the school situations such as the coverage of syllabus versus learning dilemma as well as students’ backgrounds. When a school prefers syllabus coverage over learning, it is less likely for teachers to focus on CT skill of students. Developing CT requires engaging students in interactive activities which may not be fully possible if a teacher is made accountable for the completion of the given course syllabus. This aligns with the previous studies conducted in Pakistan that found it difficult to implement interactive, student-centered CT practices within the constraints of institutional expectations (Jamil & Rizvi, 2025).

In addition, students’ low academic level owing to their backgrounds also hinders affording CT development opportunities. If a student lacks literacy skills, for example, it is quite challenging to engage them in such activities that require or likely to promote CT. Unfortunately, schools in this particular context are characterized by conventional practices that fail to develop basic literacy skills of students (Siddiqui, 2019). As these students progress to higher classes, their foundation is too week to engage them in activities that require high order thinking. It suggests that to promote CT among students we have not only to develop these skills among prospective teachers through revisiting teacher education curriculum but also to use different approach to teaching and learning in our schools. Most importantly, schools should expect teachers to develop CT among students, rather than simply covering the syllabus.

These findings extend the existing literature on CT (CT) by highlighting the interplay of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, while also incorporating context-specific strategies to promote CT, which has received limited empirical attention. Unlike prior studies that primarily focus on CT as a skill or on its development in controlled academic contexts, this study provides new insights into how prospective teachers perceive, value, and plan to implement CT strategies within real classroom settings. Moreover, this research extends existing scholarship by examining classroom practices involved in promoting critical thinking, in contrast to previous studies that relied heavily on standardized measures and emphasized outcomes rather than processes (Yurt & Kara, 2025). By focusing specifically on pre-service teachers—rather than in-service teachers, who have been the primary focus of earlier work (Jintalan & Litao, 2024)—this study provides understanding into how future educators theorize and plan to develop CT before they enter the profession. Notably, participants emphasized unique conceptualizations of CT, such as the role of personal interest and deep observation, and identified contextually relevant challenges and strategies—such as project-based learning, real-life problem discussions, and encouragement—that support CT development.

Situated within a distinct cultural and educational setting, it further responds to scholarly calls noting that approaches to CT are shaped by cultural norms and contextual factors (Yurt & Kara, 2025). Notably, the study responds to the gaps identified by Jamil et al. (2023), providing evidence-based insights into teacher beliefs, institutional constraints, and the need for assessment reforms that strengthen efforts to nurture CT in Pakistan’s schools. In doing so, it offers deeper explanatory clarity and contextual significance to the broader discourse on preparing teachers to effectively foster critical thinking.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that the research participants hold different understanding of and orientation to CT mainly on the basis of their experience and exposure. Collectively, they seemed to be quite familiar with CT, its importance in the contemporary world and the strategies that are likely to promote CT among students. Many of the strategies that the participants believe can develop CT were also reported to be practiced in classroom. The prospective teachers also showed their commitment to use various CT strategies with their students on their entry into the teaching profession. However, they were also conscious to the challenges that would hinder in using those particular strategies are likely to promote CT. The expectations of school management to cover the syllabus and the low academic background were the most significance challenges which the participants consider as barrier in promoting CT among students.

These findings have significant implications for policymakers, educational leaders, school leaders, and most importantly teacher education institutes. CT is the most important skill that students require and therefore urgent and immediate attention should be placed on developing the CT skills of students. For this purpose, policymakers should promote such policies that encourage CT in our schools. Teacher education institutes should include more content on CT and encourage those strategies that are more likely to promote CT. Schools should expect teachers to develop CT among students, rather than simply covering syllabus. Our assessment practices should also assess CT so that it would have a backwash effect on teaching practices. If we do not pay close attention to this important area then our coming generation will lack CT skills which will have significant consequences for them, their career, and our society overall.

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the research was conducted in a single institution, which may limit the generalizability of the results to other educational contexts. Second, the data relied primarily on self-reports from prospective teachers and classroom observations, which could be influenced by social desirability or researcher presence. Third, while the study focused on knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward CT (CT) and strategies to promote it, it did not include longitudinal follow-up to assess the actual impact of these strategies on student outcomes. Future research could address these limitations by involving multiple institutions, incorporating student perspectives, and employing longitudinal designs to examine the effectiveness of CT-promoting strategies over time.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Ali Nawab

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

References

Ab Kadir

M. A

. (2017). What teacher knowledge matters in effectively developing critical thinkers in the 21st century curriculum? Thinking Skills and Creativity, 23, 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2016.10.011

Alexander

M. E.

(2014). Critical thinking in public health: An exploration of skills used by public health practitioners and taught by instructors (Doctoral dissertation. ScholarWorks@ Georgia State University.

Anderson

L. W.

Krathwohl

D. R.

(Eds.) (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.

Aqeel

Zainab

Shabnum (2025). Critical thinking in the classroom: Challenges and prospects of curriculum reform in Pakistan. Dialogue Social Science Review (DSSR), 3(11), 58–70.

Aragón

O. R.

Eddy

S. L.

Graham

M. J.

(2018). Faculty beliefs about intelligence are related to the adoption of active-learning practices. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 17(3), ar47.

Bellaera

Weinstein-Jones

Ilie

Baker

S. T.

(2021). Critical thinking in practice: The priorities and practices of instructors teaching in higher education. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41, 100856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100856

Bloom

B. S.

Engelhart

M. D.

Furst

E. J.

Hill

W. H.

Krathwohl

D. R.

(1956). Taxonomy of educational objectivities: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. David McKay Company.

Braun

Clarke

(2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Cáceres

Nussbaum

Ortiz

(2020). Integrating critical thinking into the classroom: A teacher’s perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 37, 100674.

10.

Chen

(2023). Toward an understanding of 21st-century skills: From a systematic review. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 23(2), 275–294.

11.

Chen

(2017). Understanding critical thinking in Chinese sociocultural contexts: A case study in a Chinese college. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 24, 140–151.

12.

Choy

S. C.

Cheah

P. K.

(2009). Teacher perceptions of critical thinking among students and its influence on higher education. International Journal of teaching and learning in Higher Education, 20(2), 198–206.

13.

Creswell

J. W.

Creswell

J. D.

(Eds.). (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage Publications.

14.

Dennicka

R. G.

Exley

(1998). Teaching and learning in groups and teams. Biochemical Education, 26(2), 111–115.

15.

Dewey

(1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. D.C. Heath & Co.

16.

Erdoğan

(2019). Integrating 4C skills of 21st century into 4 language skills in EFL classes. International Journal of Education and Research, 7(11), 113–124.

17.

Facione

P. A.

(1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. The Delphi Report. American Philosophical Association.

18.

Frazer

Higginbotham

H. F.

Bell

T. D. M.

Funston

A. M.

(2020). ``It’s fundamental”: Quantum dot blinking experiment to teach critical thinking. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(1), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00679

19.

Griffin

McGaw

Care

(Eds.) (2012). Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills. Springer.

20.

Griffin

T. D.

Wiley

Britt

M. A.

Salas

C. R.

(2012). The role of CLEAR thinking in learning science from multiple-document inquiry tasks. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 5(1), 63–78.

21.

Harding

S. M. E.

Griffin

P. E.

Awwal

Alom

B. M.

Scoular

(2017). Measuring collaborative problem solving using mathematics-based tasks. AERA Open, 3(3), 2332858417728046.

22.

Hotaman

(2008). The examination of the basic skill levels of the students’ in accordance with the perceptions of teachers, parents and students. International Journal of Instruction, 1(2), 39–55.

23.

Huber

C. R.

Kuncel

N. R.

(2016). Does college teach critical thinking? A metaanalysis. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 431–468.

24.

Jamil

Mahmood

Masood

(2023). Fostering critical thinking in Pakistani secondary school science: A teacher’s viewpoint. Global Educational Studies Review, 8(II), 645–659.

25.

Jamil

Rizvi

S. A. A.

(2025). Critical thinking pedagogy in teacher education: An analysis of instructional practices in Pakistani higher education. Journal of Development and Social Sciences, 6(II), 107–119.

26.

Jintalan

Litao

R. A.

(2024). Sustainability education and critical thinking integration in general education. International Journal of Current Educational Studies, 3(2), 51–76.

27.

Joynes

Rossignoli

Amonoo-Kuofi

E. F.

(2019). 21st century skills: Evidence of issues in definition, demand and delivery for development contexts. Institute of Development Studies.

28.

Larsson

(2017). Understanding and teaching critical thinking—A new approach. International Journal of Educational Research, 84, 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.05.004

29.

Leibovitch

Y. M.

Beencke

Ellerton

P. J.

Mcbrien

Robinson-Taylor

C. L.

Brown

D. J.

(2025). Teachers’ (evolving) beliefs about critical thinking education during professional learning: A multi-case study. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 56, 101725.

30.

Liang

Fung

(2021). Fostering critical thinking in English-as-a-secondlanguage classrooms: Challenges and opportunities. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 39, 100769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100769

31.

Lincoln

Y. S.

Guba

E. G.

(1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.

32.

Liu

Pásztor

(2022). Effects of problem-based learning instructional intervention on critical thinking in higher education: A meta-analysis. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 45, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101069

33.

Llano

S. M.

(2015). Debate’s relationship to critical thinking. In Davies

Barnett

(Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education (pp. 139–152). Palgrave Macmillan.

34.

Lombardi

Mednick

F. J.

Backer

F. D.

Lombaerts

(2022). Teachers’ perceptions of critical thinking in primary education. International Journal of Instruction, 15(4), 1–16.

35.

McGrath

Palmgren

P. J.

Liljedahl

(2019). Twelve tips for conducting qualitative research interviews. Medical Teacher, 41(9), 1002–1006.

36.

McLaren

(2015). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education. Routledge.

37.

Naeem

Rana

R. A.

(2023). An investigation about creative and critical thinking skills of prospective teachers: A preliminary study. Bulletin of Education and Research, 45(3), 35–47.

38.

OECD. (2019). An OECD learning framework 2030. In Bast

Carayannis

E. G.

Campbell

D. F. J.

(Eds.), The future of education and labor (pp. 23–35). Springer International Publishing.

39.

OECD. (2021). 21st-Century readers: Developing literacy skills in a digital world. PISA, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a83d84cb-en

40.

Oktarina

Suhaimi

Santosa

T. A.

Razak

Irdawati

Ahda

Lufri

Putri

D. H.

(2021). Meta-analysis: The effectiveness of using blended learning on multiple intelligences and student character education during the COVID-19 period. International Journal of Education and Curriculum Application, 4(3), 184–192.

41.

Orlich

D. C.

Hander

Callahan

Trevisan

Brown

Miller

(Eds.). (2013). Theaching strategies: A guide to effective instruction (10th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

42.

Pulungan

H. K.

Anshori

D. S.

Sumiyadi

Mulyati

(2025). The role of debate learning in improving students’ critical and argumentative thinking skills: A needs analysis. KEMBARA: Jurnal Keilmuan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Pengajarannya, 11(1), 60–75.

43.

Rahdar

Pourghaz

Marziyeh

(2018). The impact of teaching philosophy for children on critical openness and reflective skepticism in developing critical thinking and self-efficacy. International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 539–556.

44.

Sarıgöz

(2023). Teaching the 21st century learning skills with the critical thinking technique based on the argumentation method. Educational Policy Analysis and Strategic Research, 18(1), 196–218.

45.

Siddiqui

(2019). What do we know about children’s access to school and their learning outcomes in Pakistan? Analysis of the risk factors to children’s proficiency in literacy and numeracy assessments. Journal of International Development, 31(8), 752–763.

46.

Suhartoyo

Afrilyasanti

Syahid

Basthomi

Mukminatien

(2025). Portraying gaps and trends in critical thinking tendencies in academic writings for future research directions: A bibliometric study from 1989 to 2021. Journal of Scientometric Research, 14(2), 645–661.

47.

Ten Dam

Volman

. (2004). Critical thinking as a citizenship competence: Teaching strategies. Learning and Instruction, 14(4), 359–379.

48.

Trede

McEwen

(2015). CT for future practice: Learning to question. In Davies

Barnett

(Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of CT in higher education (pp. 457–474). Palgrave Macmillan.

49.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2021a). Teachers have their say: Motivation, skills and opportunities to teach education for sustainable development and global citizenship. UNESCO.

50.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2021b). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. UNESCO.

51.

Van Gelder

. (2013). The rationale for rationale. Law Probability and Risk, 6(1–4), 23–42.

52.

Yin

R. K.

(Ed.). (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

53.

Yurt

Kara

(2025). The influence of parental attitude, school climate, and classroom management on critical thinking: The significance of inclusive classrooms in higher education. Sage Open, 15(3), 21582440251382061.

54.

Yustina

(2020). Implementation of project-based learning model in growth and development learning to increase the students’ science literacy and critical thinking skills. International E-Journal of Advances in Education, 6(16), 66–72.

55.

Zhao

Pandian

Mehar Singh

M. K.

(2016). Instructional strategies for developing critical thinking in EFL classrooms. English Language Teaching, 9(10), 14–21.

56.

Zondo

P. M.

Human-Vogel

Omidire

M. F.

(2025). Challenges related to teaching critical thinking in the foundation phase. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 15(1), 11.