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Abstract

This qualitative study investigated the perceptions of prospective teachers on critical thinking (CT) skills before and after completing the Functional English (FE) course at the Bachelor of Education Honors (B.Ed. Hons) and Associate Degree in Education (ADE). A purposive sampling technique was employed to select 40 participants, with eight allocated to each of the five focus group discussions from two universities and three teacher education colleges in the Hazara Division, located in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. Additionally, five unstructured classroom observations took place within these five institutions. Semi-structured questions guided the focus group discussions, while unstructured observation techniques were employed for data collection. The findings from the thematic analysis indicated a significant shift in prospective teachers’ perspectives regarding enhancing CT skills before and after completing the FE course. Prospective teachers recognized the significance and impact of inquiry in fostering CT skills. Furthermore, they identified the importance of diverse resources within the context of learning and student-centered classrooms in developing CT skills. The field notes from unstructured observation witnessed CT skills during participant-led open classroom discussions. The study suggests promoting prospective teachers’ engagement in analytical thinking and applying these skills to real-world challenges, including the subject matter taught, the content’s source and credibility, and the intricate connections between newly acquired information and prior knowledge.

Plain language summary

This study examined how prospective teachers perceived critical thinking (CT) skills before and after taking the Functional English (FE) course for the Bachelor of Education Honors (B.Ed. Hons) and Associate Degree in Education (ADE). Forty (40) prospective teachers from two universities and three teacher education colleges in the Hazara Division of Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province were taken as sample of the study. Eight prospective teachers from each of the five focus groups were chosen using purposive sampling. Besides that, five unstructured classroom observations were made. The thematic analysis showed prospective teachers’ ideas about developing CT changed significantly before and after finishing the FE course. Prospective teachers understood how important and useful questioning is for building CT skills. The study suggests that students learn CT skills to improve their ability to think analytically and use these skills to deal with problems in the real world.

Keywords

critical thinking functional English perceptions prospective teachers teacher educators

Introduction

Critical thinking (CT) encompasses the skills of rationally examining the quality of evidence, raising productive questions, evaluating claims, questioning, analyzing arguments, investigating implicit assumptions, and considering the relevance and accuracy of interpretations (Bellaera et al., 2021; Elder & Paul, 2020; Heard et al., 2020). This essential 21st-century core skill has become a central aim for higher education students needed for successful educational and professional outcomes (Graesser et al., 2022; Janssen et al., 2019; Li, 2023; Saroyan, 2022; Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Future of Education and Skills 2030 stakeholders have listed CT skills as one of the specific constructs in their transformative competencies list for teachers and principals to include in the curriculum (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2019). The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) highlights the importance of CT and other advanced cognitive abilities in harnessing the potential of new technologies (Thiga, 2024). It is fundamental for teacher educators to equip students to assess content reliability, discern biases, and appraise the accuracy and relevance of AI-generated information (Chan, 2023; Essien et al., 2024; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2023).

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) curricula have increasingly emphasized the development of CT skills, recognizing their central role in helping students not only master the language but also engage more deeply with content, solve complex problems, and make informed decisions. This enables students to acquire analytical and reflective skills to address their academic and real challenges (Li, 2023; Tang, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020). Developing students’ CT skills requires deliberate instruction and a supportive environment in the language classroom (Etemadfar et al., 2020).

The goal of Pakistan Vision 2025 is to reform the education system through a paradigm shift from rote memorization to inculcating CT skills, which aligns with the global need for 21st-century skills (Ministry of Planning, Development, and Reform, 2014). The Pakistan National Education Policy (NEP) Framework 2018 (Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training [MOFEPT], 2018) and NEP 2017–2025 (MOFEPT, 2017) also manifest the need to equip young individuals with creativity, CT, and leadership skills. Similarly, NEP-2009 (Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan, 2009) underscored the need for reforms in the education system to meet the demands of the globalized world. Conversely, the traditional belief regarding the role of the teacher as a knowledge dispenser is still prevalent. English is taught through traditional methods in crowded classrooms with insufficient resources. Students are expected to accumulate a large amount of information and reproduce the same information accurately in examinations (Akram, 2017; Yasmin et al., 2019). In Pakistan, prescribed textbooks are generally valued without scientific inquiry or questioning as they ensure that students who complete and remember the textbook material will likely achieve high test scores (Government of Pakistan, 2006). Research on the use and significance of CT skills has been explored in various contexts across Pakistan. For instance, CT skills in higher education have been explored in teaching practices (Arif et al., 2021; Raza et al., 2021), pedagogical challenges in developing CT (Anwar & Alvi, 2023), and evaluation of undergraduates’ CT abilities (Din, 2020). The education of pre-service and in-service teachers requires displaying theoretical ideas that intellectually challenge them to reason and use problem-solving skills (Ball, 2009). The Higher Education Commission (HEC) (2012) Pakistan emphasized CT skills in the Functional English (FE) course in initial teacher education programs. The teacher-centered curriculum taught through traditional lectures did not meet the requirements of prospective teachers and was replaced with student-centered pedagogies in the new FE course. Although the previous FE course focused on all four language skills, it needed more emphasis on creativity, CT skills, student-centered learning, and authentic assessments (Shah, 2007; Sohail & Noreen, 2020).

Developing CT skills has gained importance due to recent technological developments and the rise of generative AI (Chan, 2023; Essien et al., 2024). Keeping this context in view and prospective teachers’ need to possess these abilities, the current study investigates the integration of CT skills in the FE course. CT skills in the FE course are essential for prospective teachers, equipping them with analytical tools and preparing them for the field and complexities of the rapidly evolving digital age. The training prospective teachers receive, particularly in developing CT skills, directly influences the effectiveness and depth of their knowledge. While the importance of CT is widely acknowledged in learning, greater clarity is needed to understand what CT skills truly encompass in the FE course at higher education. This study investigates how prospective teachers perceive CT skills before learning the FE course and how their understanding evolves as they progress. This study elucidates the following question:

What are the prospective teachers’ perceptions of CT skills before and after studying the FE course?

Literature Review

In universities, preparing prospective teachers through innovative teaching approaches, such as problem-based learning, inquiry-driven tasks, and collaborative projects, fosters deeper analysis, reflection, and independent reasoning, essential for cultivating CT skills, they will later impart to their students (Ahmad et al., 2014; Setyarini et al., 2018). Bibi and Akhter (2020) revealed the low performance of prospective teachers when assessed for CT skills. The prospective teachers performed comparatively better in the sub-skill of interpreting information rather than in the sub-skills of inferencing, assuming, deducting, and analyzing arguments. Research also emphasizes the importance of integrating CT skills into English language learning across four key language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Sèna & Etienne, 2022; Shakil et al., 2021; Tuzlukova et al., 2018; Yosintha & Arochman, 2020). Teacher education programs in Pakistan prioritize producing more graduates rather than improving CT and reflective skills (Aslam et al., 2021; Mahmood, 2017). Fazal et al. (2014) and Poštić et al. (2023) highlighted the necessity of comprehensive training for in-service and pre-service teachers.

Significant reforms in teacher education were introduced in 2009 by the HEC Pakistan in collaboration with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (HEC, 2012). The National Qualifications Framework of Pakistan 2009 to 2015 created a list of general competencies anticipated to be fostered through Bachelor of Education Honors (B.Ed. Hons) and Associate Degree in Education (ADE) (HEC, 2016). The reforms also aimed to provide prospective teachers with pedagogical techniques for effective English language instruction. The FE course suggests teaching the course content and identifying potential resource materials. Instead of only prescribed textbooks in the new FE course, different resources encourage prospective teachers to use CT skills, such as interpreting, analyzing, and evaluating the content, fostering independence and flexibility (HEC, 2012).

The theoretical framework of this study draws on Elder and Paul’s (1996) and Paul and Elder’s (2001) CT model and builds on Vygotsky’s constructivist principles (Vygotsky, 1976). According to Paul and Elder (2001), educators use reasoning as a tool to develop students’ thinking, which demands asking questions about new content for clarity, accuracy, and interpretation. Following Vygotsky’s (1978) framework, the FE course introduces collaborative activities as scaffolds for developing CT and enhancing language skills. Each activity enables students to build cognitive skills and foster a deeper understanding. This resonates with Paul and Elder’s (2001) emphasis on the evaluation process in CT, where students ask questions and assess information from different perspectives. The group discussions and collaborative tasks in the FE course create a learning environment where students can refine their thinking through interaction, benefiting from their peers’ diverse ideas and interpretations. This process helps them construct meaning and critically analyze language through a social learning context, underscoring the constructivist aspect of Vygotsky’s theory.

Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) suggests the gap between what students can perform independently and what they can accomplish with assistance is foundational to CT in the FE course. The course offers structured yet flexible pedagogical tasks within each student’s ZPD. As students engage in these tasks, they receive initial guidance from the teacher tailored to push their cognitive limits without overwhelming them. Student-centered learning allows students to develop new learning attitudes, placing them as active participants in the classroom rather than passive recipients of knowledge (Cunha & Uva, 2017; Johnson & Johnson, 2016; Toshpulatova & Kinjemuratova, 2020; Valverde & Navarro, 2017). CT is not innate; while some students may be naturally curious, they still require training to develop systematic, analytical, fair, and open-minded approaches to learning. With these skills, students can gain confidence in their reasoning and apply their CT abilities across any subject (Lundquist, 1999). Teachers guide students’ learning through questioning, encouraging them to collaboratively explore, construct knowledge, solve problems, and apply CT to make decisions and understand the content (Calder, 2015; Lee & Hannafin, 2016). To make CT more realistic and measurable, the teacher is not only the center of the classroom but also gives opportunities to the students to explore and inquire in the class (Irawati, 2014).

Following Paul and Elder’s (2001) CT model, questioning encourages deep thinking, motivates learning, stimulates creativity, and, most importantly, promotes scientific inquiry and its practical application (Duron et al., 2006; Neirotti, 2021). It is an effective technique in helping students develop CT skills, reinforce their understanding, and provide feedback (Lorsch & Ronkowski, 1982). Higher-order thinking occurs when the learners integrate existing and new information to solve complex problems or generate new ideas (Bloom, 1956). It is widely recognized that engaging students in learning activities, including making observations, asking questions, and analyzing is crucial, as these skills are closely tied to CT (Fitzgerald, 2012; Silva et al., 2022). In contrast, lower-order thinking involves routine tasks and mechanical processes (King et al., 2009). To develop these skills, progressing from lower-order to higher-order thinking enables prospective teachers to instill CT and problem-solving abilities, preparing them for effective teaching. The FE course offers a structured, scaffolded approach that embodies Vygotsky’s constructivist principles and uses Paul and Elder’s CT model to develop prospective teachers’ reasoning and evaluative skills.

Methodology

A qualitative research design has been employed because it offers the researcher an in-depth understanding of the research problem (Cohen et al., 2017). This study was conducted from an interpretivist perspective to gain insight into prospective teachers’ perceptions of CT within the framework of the redesigned FE course. These methodologies widely utilize naturalistic techniques such as interviews and observations to gather in-depth insights, focusing on understanding the meaning of events and phenomena from the perspectives of those directly involved. This paradigm emphasizes human experience, prioritizing subjective interpretations and the social contexts that shape them (Cohen et al., 2017; Martens, 2005). Therefore, the perspectives and analyses of the individuals involved play a pivotal role in the research endeavor, enabling the comprehension of the subjective world as viewed and interpreted by the participants (Creswell & Poth, 2016).

The study consisted of two distinct parts. Part-I involved gathering data through focus group discussions, during which participants were asked about their views regarding CT skills at the start of the semester before studying the FE course. Part-II focused on data collection through another round of focus group discussions conducted at the end of the semester after the participants had experienced the FE course. The unstructured observations took place during the semester (Figure 1). This research collected multiple forms of data, such as focus group interviews and field notes from classroom observations, to capture a complete picture and corroborate evidence of fostering CT skills in the FE course. Concise and objective language was used to document the observations, ensuring objectivity.

Figure 1.

Research procedure followed in the study.

Population and Sample

The study’s target population comprised all the 140 prospective teachers of B.Ed. (Hons) and ADE programs studying the specific FE course in two universities and three teacher education colleges in Hazara division, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan (Provost Office of the Universities, personal communication, September 24, 2013) (Table 1). A total sample of 40 prospective teachers enrolled in the FE course was purposively selected (Cohen et al., 2017) for five focus group discussions from two universities and three affiliated teacher education colleges that offer the B.Ed. (Hons)/ ADE program in Fall 2013. Each focus group discussion comprised eight prospective teachers from each institution. In this selection, teacher educators were asked to choose those willing to discuss and express their views openly without considering their ability in FE. The primary rationale behind selecting these two universities was their status as pioneering institutions for the inaugural implementation of the B.Ed. (Hons)/ADE degree program. Moreover, the faculty from the Department of Education of the two selected universities actively participated in the curriculum development. Similarly, all three Government Colleges for Teacher Education chosen in the study were affiliated with these universities. The sampled prospective teachers included 67% females and 33% males aged 20 to 24. Eighty percent of the prospective teachers were studying for the ADE course, while the remaining 20% were studying for the B.Ed. (Hons) degree program. The sample for the unstructured observation comprised an entire class, with each observation conducted across five institutions.

Table 1.

Details of Prospective Teachers Studying the FE Course.

Sr. No.	Institution	Focus group (FG)	Male	Female	Total
1.	University A	1	07	09	16
2.	University B	2	05	07	12
3.	College A	3	00	40	40
4.	College B	4	00	38	38
5.	College C	5	34	00	34

Research Instruments

Two research instruments, focus group discussion and unstructured observation, were used to gain insights into prospective teachers’ perceived CT skills. Similarly, focus group discussion was chosen because the group’s social interaction provides an opportunity to glean in-depth and extensive data in a short period of time (Gundumogula, 2020). The focus group discussion covered varied areas of CT, such as participants’ demographic information, learners’ perceived nature of CT, and how the participants have practically learned CT following this specific course of study. As Bryman (2016) and Mulhall (2003) highlighted, unstructured observation enables the researcher to capture and create a comprehensive, rich-thick description of the phenomenon. The main focus of unstructured observation was documenting the participants’ views and discussion sessions among prospective teachers in the context of FE. The main areas of observation included content, lesson organization, the interaction between the teacher educator and prospective teachers, and the connection between the FE course and the advancement in CT skills. The open discussion allows the participants to have a flexible environment to discuss, explore, raise issues, and give open reflection (Cohen et al., 2017). Observations were conducted to triangulate the data from focus group discussions. A detailed report was prepared after each observation before the subsequent observation session at another institution to ensure accuracy and consistency. After each observation, expressions of gratitude were extended to the prospective teachers, teacher educators, and the head of the institution for granting permission to conduct the observation.

Data Collection

Focus Group Discussions

Focus group discussions and unstructured observations were conducted with prospective teachers in the classroom setting. They were receptive to the researcher’s aim of exploring CT skills. The sessions were conducted in a classroom provided by the respective institution’s staff. During Part-I of data collection, the first round of focus groups was performed before studying the FE course. In each focus group, eight prospective teachers discussed the CT in the scenario of the FE course. Before the focus group discussion, the discussants were briefed regarding the study’s objectives. They were also informed about the set roles to be followed during group discussion, that is, they were free to express their views in any language (mother tongue, national language, or international language); they had the right to agree or oppose the views of other participants. The discussion sessions were audio-recoded using a digital recorder, and comprehensive field notes were documented throughout the sessions. Transcription of focus group discussions was completed with the assistance of the field notes before conducting focus groups in Part-II.

Part II of data collection was carried out at the end of the semester when the FE course was completed. Focus groups were administered involving the same participants who participated in the first round of focus groups. The interpretations of the prospective teachers’ views in Part I were also presented to participants for validation and comparison with Part II. The same questions were included for discussion in the second round of the focus group discussion to analyze the difference in perceptions about CT skills in the FE course.

Unstructured Observation

Data through observation was collected once in the middle of the semester when half of the course had been completed, according to the suggestion by Mulhall (2003). The teaching of the FE course was observed in a class of 60 min in each selected institution. The purpose was to observe the instructional activities of the teacher educators to develop CT skills in the classroom. The teacher educators teaching the FE course in all five institutions were contacted telephonically to adjust the time for observation. These teacher educators had already consented to observation through a consent form. The lesson and classroom under observation were entirely under the control of the teacher educators, while the researcher’s role was merely like that of a non-participatory observer, as Cohen et al. (2017) suggested. An observation schedule was used during the observations, and field notes were taken to tally later for data analysis. In this research, observations were conducted to complement and enhance the data collected from focus group discussions. Observing classroom activities can provide genuine evidence of the extent to which the course is implemented to develop CT.

The observations also gave the researcher additional insights into the prospective teachers’ perspectives. Before each observation, the research’s purpose and objectives were discussed, highlighting that the observations did not encompass assessment or critique. Teacher educators provided lesson plans before the observation, facilitating tracking of the activities in the classroom. With the teacher educators’ permission, the researcher joined a few groups during group activities to observe prospective teacher interactions and how the teacher educator facilitated group discussions. Details were documented according to the predetermined thematic categories to address these potential risks. All the classroom events, activities, behaviors, non-verbal communication, and timing of events were carefully observed. Moreover, precise and objective language was used to document the observations. A detailed report was prepared after each observation before the subsequent observation session at another institution to ensure accuracy and consistency. After each observation, expressions of gratitude were extended to the prospective teachers, teacher educators, and the head of the institution for granting permission to conduct the observation.

Data Analysis

The data collected in Part-I of the study comprised transcripts of discussions held in five focus groups labeled FG1-FG5. These transcripts were presented to the participants before conducting the Part-II of the focus group discussion and then finalized for analysis. The data collected during the focus group discussions in the mother tongue (Urdu) was subsequently translated into English. For reference, in the analysis, each participant of the specific focus group was assigned a number like Participant 1(P1), Participant 2(P2), and so on. For example, the first participant of focus group No.1 was denoted by (P1, FG1). The data from the focus group discussion was analyzed using NVivo 12, following the views of Jackson and Bazeley (2019). Detailed field notes were recorded during each observation and analyzed using NVivo, similar to focus groups.

Thematic analysis was selected as an approach that provides a thick description by identifying, describing, and interpreting themes (Braun & Clarke, 2013). This follows six stages: (a) familiarizing with the data, (b) developing initial codes, (c) searching for themes, (d) reviewing the themes, (e) identifying names for themes, (f) preparing the final analysis report. After the completion of the transcription of data, the researchers went through it by reading and re-reading to familiarize themselves with the data. Then, the researchers collated the data under relevant themes and sub-themes. While generating themes, the researchers considered every bit of data with full attention. Then, the deductive approach was employed to identify potential themes for collating different sub-themes. Repeated cross-checking among themes and relevant data ensured that all the vital information was included. Member checking and triangulation were used as validation strategies to confirm the credibility and trustworthiness of the results (Creswell & Poth, 2016). Member checking strategy involved feedback from the participants on the interpretation of data. To remove possible misconceptions in interpreting participants’ viewpoints, the data from the Part-I were shared with participants during the data collection in Part-II. Stake (2006) indicated that triangulation ensures that “we have the picture as clear and suitably meaningful as we can get it, relatively free of our own biases and not likely to mislead the reader greatly” (p. 77).

Ethical Considerations

Cohen et al. (2017) emphasize the ethical considerations involved in research with human participants, which were carefully addressed throughout both parts of the study. Permission from participating institutions was obtained via email through informed consent from the heads of the Department of Education and teacher education colleges. A comprehensive informed consent form was created and administered to all prospective teachers participating in the research study. This form included details about the researcher, the research project’s title and objectives, the participants involved, and the importance of the study. Since all participants were of adult age and could provide consent, they were comprehensively informed about their rights and willingly agreed to engage in the research study. The participants were assured of their confidentiality. The consent form also described that the data would only be used for research purposes and would be destroyed at the end of the study. Participants (prospective teachers) were assigned pseudonyms and codes during focus group discussions to maintain confidentiality. The participants were assured that their data would be treated with the highest level of confidentiality and that their identities would not be revealed in any manner. All kinds of data, that is, audio recordings of focus group discussions, transcripts, and observation field notes, were stored securely under lock. Similarly, the computer files containing the data were password protected.

Findings

This study explored prospective teachers’ perspectives on CT skills before and after studying the FE course. The focus group discussion findings at the beginning of the FE course (Part-I) highlighted three main themes: (a) copying relevant ideas, (b) limited use of CT skills, and (c) teacher-centered classroom. After studying the FE course (Part-II), the three main themes were: (a) clarity and precision of CT skills, (b) a specific textbook-free course, and (c) a student-centered class. Furthermore, two sub-themes, (a1) the role of open questioning and (a2) the application of CT skills through an activity-based approach, also emerged. The results from unstructured observations are triangulated with the findings of the focus group discussion. The major and subthemes that emerged are listed in Table 2.

Table 2.

Prospective Teachers’ Perspectives on CT Skills Before and After Studying the FE Course.

Sr. No.	Phases	Themes and subthemes
1	Part-I Perceptions about CT Skills before Studying the FE Course	a. Copying relevant ideas
		b. Focus on rote learning
		c. Teacher-centered classroom
2	Part-II Perceptions about CT Skills after Studying the FE Course	a. Clarity and precision of CT skills (a1) Role of open questioning (a2) Application of CT skills through an activity-based approach
		b. A specific textbook-free course
		c. Student-centered class

Part-I

Perceptions About CT Skills Before Studying the FE Course

The following themes emerged from focus group discussions before the FE course, highlighting prospective teachers’ perspectives on CT skills.

Copying Relevant Ideas

When the prospective teachers enquired about their understanding of CT, they demonstrated confusion and uncertainty. Two prospective teachers exhibited a lack of familiarity with the concept of CT, while the responses of the rest of the participants revealed their confusion. CT is:

to copy thoughts and ideas of others. (P8, FG2)

The participants equated replicating relevant content with the process of CT. One participant highlighted:

I’m not sure what critical thinking is. Should I create new ideas, or is it more about reworking and reproducing others’ content? (P4, FG1)

The response highlights a perceived confusion among participants, with some relying on copying thoughts and ideas as a form of CT.

Another two participants perceived CT to disagree with other ideas:

Critical thinking needs to think differently. (P5, FG2) and do not agree with others’ thoughts. (P7, FG2)

Additionally, there is a lack of understanding of what CT comprises. Participants needed more clarity between the terms CT and negative criticism. For instance, one of the prospective teachers specified:

Critical thinking is negative thinking and/or criticiz[ing] someone or something. (P1, FG4)

The findings revealed that the prospective teachers generally possessed a foundational understanding of CT. However, it is noteworthy that one prospective teacher emphasized the importance of asking questions, but they did not have any idea how to apply it outside the class:

I think we can question and ask our teachers about what we have been taught in the class for gaining knowledge and achieving grades. (P7, FG2)

The participants’ responses indicated a lack of connection between thinking and questioning. In light of the study’s definition, this response suggests a misalignment with CT’s multifaceted nature, which includes active engagement, questioning, analyzing, and inferring. The identified misconceptions among participants also suggest enhancing their understanding of CT within the specific context of teacher education.

Focus on Rote Learning

In a focus group discussion before starting the course, the participants were given a list of activities, such as questions, role-play, interviews, pair/group discussions, debates, and presentations, and asked if they had any prior experience using these activities in the classroom and how they used them. Four participants pinpointed that they had yet to experience using these activities except for questions. They asked questions solely related to tasks assigned as homework. They were discouraged from seeking clarification as the teachers prioritized adhering to the rote learning of the prescribed syllabus within the allotted timeframe.

I have not used these activities in the classroom, and I don’t know what to do or their benefits. We ask questions only if any homework is assigned. (P6, FG3)

However, two participants explained they used questioning techniques and group discussion in the classroom:

The teacher encouraged us to ask questions if we needed help understanding any part of the lesson and repeat/revise to grasp ideas. (P5, FG4)

Similarly,

We initiated a classroom discussion on the teacher’s prompt. A few of us talked about the topic, and a few remained silent. (P1, FG4)

They used them when asking how and when their teachers applied these activities and for which topics. Prospective teachers conveyed their ignorance and were unaware of the importance of questioning and discussion techniques. Instead, they focused on rote memorization. One of the participants from College A (FG3) stated:

I read questions written at the end of the exercise and memorize the answers to achieve good scores. (P1, FG3)

Furthermore, the participant, P1 from College A (FG3), narrated:

We have been practicing thinking skills but never knew this is critical thinking. (P1, FG3)

This highlighted the prospective teachers’ confusion stemming from their previous educational experiences. The confusion can be attributed to students’ lack of awareness of CT techniques and insufficient teacher guidance.

Teacher-centered Classroom

The essential theme that emerged and depicted the classroom’s learning environment is teacher-centered. In traditional classrooms, the teacher is reflected as the main person/individual in the teaching-learning process. The teacher focused on completing the course without paying much attention to language learning and improving CT skills. The teacher emphasized rote learning methods and focused on rules and applying those rules in generating sentences.

One of the participants, P2 from College A, described the situation as follows:

We always listen to the teacher’s lecture, complete exercises at the end of the lesson and learn for the exam. (P2, FG3)

Teaching usually means one-way communication through teacher lectures with little or no student participation. Lectures dominate, questioning is discouraged, and assessment rewards rote memorization. At the same time, most courses are textbook-based and focused on book activities. The students’ goals lie in building communication skills, learning the basic functions of the English language, and developing CT skills that are ignored. One of the participants, P3 from University A, narrated:

Teachers give us homework, and we find most of the answers in books or teachers who have already told us about the answer and provided readymade lecture notes. (P3, FG1)

The data analysis revealed that learning the language was memorizing its structure. The students relied on the textbook and the teacher who taught the class and never questioned what had been taught. Bringing all this together makes developing CT challenging. Moreover, participant P6 from College C revealed that the teacher is the epitome of authority and that the class is teacher-centered. They consider the teacher’s instructions final as they were not prepared for unseen questions and reflective practices. Given the teacher-centered paradigm that tends to dominate learning, developing CT may be challenging, as opportunities to question are rare, creating sets of group work tasks allowed for the kind of question essential in CT.

Part-II

Perceptions About CT Skills After Studying the FE Course

After studying the FE course, one predominant theme with two sub-themes has emerged regarding the participants’ perceptions of CT skills. These themes depict their enhanced understanding of CT skills’ nature and development throughout the course. Additionally, two distinctive themes have also arisen from the data analysis, shedding light on the impact of deviating from a prescribed textbook approach and adopting student-centered teaching methods. These approaches, utilizing various resources and implementing activities centered around student engagement, have significantly transformed the prospective teachers’ perceptions of CT skills. Five observations were also conducted, one in each institution, to assess the delivery of the FE course. The findings from observation have been triangulated with the themes that emerged from focus group discussions. Following are the main and sub-themes:

Clarity and Precision of CT

At the beginning of the course (Part-I), the prospective teachers exhibited confusion in sharing their views about CT. Their perception of the nature of CT substantially changed and improved after taking the FE course (Part-II).

The dialogue among the prospective teachers in University A (FG1) illustrates the transition in their views:

Before exposure to the Functional English course, we hardly had an idea of how [critical] thinking can be involved in learning. (P1, FG1)

…we have been practicing [critical] thinking skills unnoticeably or without realizing that there was any thinking involved in learning. (P3, FG1)

… though [critical] thinking has always been there, it was more like casual thinking. (P5, FG1)

… when you first asked this question, we were confused about what it might be … that’s why we all replied we don’t have any idea about this, … after when we started realizing that that’s [critical thinking] what we always practice in the classroom during different activities and so on. (P1, FG1)

This highlights the prospective teachers’ lack of awareness about the value of thinking in their previous learning, thus indicating that their last learning was based on rote memorization of facts. Furthermore, the prospective teachers were confused regarding the nature of CT at the beginning of the course, but learning the FE course improved their CT.

Additionally, participants were initially confused about the nature of CT, which improved due to the FE course. The following quotes of the prospective teachers shared an important clarification about the concept of CT:

Earlier, I used to think that critical thinking meant negative thinking or finding faults with something, but today, I think critical thinking means thinking of all the negative and positive aspects of a thing and then coming to some conclusion. We can call it careful thinking. (P1, FG4)

This comment indicates clarity regarding the word critical. This prospective teacher had a new perspective and viewed CT as evaluating a thing’s positive and negative aspects rather than harsh criticism. Another prospective teacher perceived CT as logical thinking and enumerated:

… To me, critical thinking is to think logically and then come up with the best ideas we have thought of. (P5, FG1)

Similarly, the classroom observations presented a valuable chance to examine the alignment between the observations and the prospective teachers’ understanding of CT. As an illustration, the prospective teachers were instructed to actively listen by reviewing two audio recordings within a single instructional session. The information was presented through multimedia, enabling individuals to listen attentively. This facilitated the ability of the prospective teachers to engage in critical self-evaluation, internalize, and implement the instructional principles when carrying out the tasks.

Although logical thinking is significant in the CT process, it involves more than generating the best ideas. The prospective teachers were confused about CT, but the FE course enabled them to apply various problem-solving strategies. This depicted their performance and provided insights into the activities they were engaged in during the FE course. The initial confusion and lack of awareness suggest a potential gap in their prior education, emphasizing the importance of incorporating explicit CT instruction in teacher education. The following two sub-themes further elaborate the main theme:

Role of Open Questioning

Structured questions in the classroom enable prospective teachers to examine their thinking processes. They can make decisions and attempt to solve problems. The critical role of open questioning has emerged as an essential sub-theme. The prospective teachers did not give importance to questioning in Part-I. While, in Part-II, the prospective teachers revealed the role of questioning in understanding the concept of CT. One prospective teacher from College A (FG3) highlighted:

[Critical thinking] is thinking differently from the traditional way. It is higher-order learning that involves critical thinking. It involves questioning, ample time is given for thinking, and students should not be forced to learn something; instead, they should be given an appropriate time to think and learn by themselves. (P3, FG3)

Another participant, P1 from College B (FG4), acknowledged the importance of Wh-questions:

… to think about questions that what, when and how it is so … so that’s what I called deep thinking. (P1, FG4)

The prospective teachers are referring to: “what, when, and how questions” exhibited their understanding of the type and nature of the questioning involved in the course.

The classroom observations also demonstrated the characteristics of CT, which encompass the processes of evaluation, analysis, and careful consideration of information through questioning.

Overall, the evidence from Part-II reveals that the prospective teachers’ understanding of the nature of CT substantially changed toward the end of the FE course compared to their position at the beginning of the course in Part-I. Despite the diversity in their views regarding CT, the prospective teachers indicated that the FE course initiated their thinking, and questioning helped them to understand the concepts.

Application of CT Skills Through an Activity-Based Approach

The prospective teachers recognized the significance of student-centered learning to engage in self-improvement and constructive competition with their classmates as mentioned in the definition of CT in this study. The participants engaged in a focused discussion regarding the efficacy of various activities stated:

Here in this course, we came across a new method of teaching which was activity-based, and it helped us improve our language skills. (P2, FG 3)

This course promotes thinking as it involves many activities. (P1, FG4)

Group discussions were also very helpful in promoting our thinking skills. (P4, FG1)

The prospective teachers appreciated the activity-based learning approach. They perceived it as an innovative and differentiated method compared to their prior experiences, which predominantly emphasized rote memorizing and dependency on the teacher. The individuals explicitly referred to activities as a stimulant for cognitive processes. The activities afforded prospective teachers’ possibilities for interpersonal interaction and communication, which were hardly encountered in their prior educational experiences. This facilitated the effective practice of CT skills in language learning.

Likewise, another prospective teacher talked about various activities by stating:

Presentations, role play, stage performances….we enjoyed all these things, which were quite new to us. (P5, FG3)

Moreover, the observation of five lessons from five institutions revealed brainstorming sessions at the beginning of the lesson, and the prospective teachers were asked to evaluate various options critically. Prospective teachers practiced and evaluated different ideas in group activities and ultimately selected the most significant concepts to present to the whole class and chose the best ideas to contribute to the entire class, as evidenced in classroom discussions.

The overall response from the prospective teachers is highly positive, with two prospective teachers recognizing that the activity-based approach promotes thinking. The group work projects, integral to the FE curriculum, offered prospective teachers invaluable opportunities to nurture and enhance their CT abilities.

A Specific Textbook-free Course

In Part-II, the findings unveil two unique themes, one of which revolves around learning without the constraint of a prescribed textbook. The feedback and insights from prospective teachers concerning a course that does not rely on a prescribed textbook are quite interesting. They expressed satisfaction with utilizing diverse resources and engaging in various classroom learning tasks, a departure from the previous practice of relying solely on a single textbook. The prospective teachers’ responses include:

Previously, we used to follow textbooks, and our whole learning revolved around bookish knowledge, but for the first time, we had a feeling and were given the opportunity to practice all four language skills. It was taught as a language, not a subject. (P6, FG5)

There was no prescribed textbook; instead, many [re] sources were suggested in guidelines. (P5, FG2)

One noteworthy aspect was the shift in the teaching approach, emphasizing English as a language, not a subject. The absence of a textbook granted the freedom to partake in diverse activities and significantly diminished the emphasis on rote memorization.

One of the prospective teachers explicitly talked about thinking while stating:

We are given opportunities to think and learn, and we are not bound to textbooks. (P4, FG4)

Similarly, peer feedback was used instead of a textbook or traditional teacher’s feedback during College A’s observation. The prospective teachers were asked to critically assess their peers’ ideas and select the most appropriate method or approach for designing instruction.

The prospective teacher discovered that the freedom from a prescribed textbook allowed them to think critically. Based on the findings above, the absence of a textbook relieved the pressure on teacher educators and allowed them to prioritize prospective teachers' learning through various activities.

Student-centered Class

Another unique theme that emerged was the adoption of student-centered classes. These classes served as a motivational catalyst for prospective teachers, encouraging them to demonstrate their CT skills in the classroom.

The FE course was characterized as a paradigm shift from teacher-centered to student-centered approach. However, the prospective teachers in Part-I were not provided opportunities for active participation in the learning process through diverse activities. In Part II, the prospective teachers expressed their thoughts extensively regarding their involvement in learning, which aligns with the concept of CT skills in the current study. For instance, one of the participants from College C (FG5) stated:

It [previous learning experience] was teacher-centered, but here we were active learners, and we experienced student-centered class. (P1, FG5)

It makes us search for relevant material on our own, and that’s how we learn better. (P3, FG5)

… whatever we have learned, we will apply our learning experience. Our learning experience will help us make our students understand whatever is being taught. (P7, FG3)

Further, University A’s observation demonstrated student-centered classrooms and that prospective teachers use different learning resources. In a collaborative task, prospective teachers were instructed to generate and address inquiries that involved teacher-student and student-student interaction. This approach aimed to foster the development of CT skills, considered a crucial element of CT.

The prospective teachers recognized the difference in teaching approaches between their past experiences and the recent FE course. Specifically, one prospective teacher mentioned how a teacher-centered approach had hindered their ability to become active learners. It can be inferred that this prospective teacher appreciated the FE class as it provided an opportunity for independent learning, where they could engage in various activities and exercise different skills. The quotes above highlight the prospective teachers’ enthusiasm for a more student-centered learning approach. They expressed positivity toward the activities employed in the course.

Discussion

This study pertains to finding prospective teachers’ perceptions regarding CT skills before and after studying the FE course. The course focuses on interactive approaches and fosters their engagement, critical analysis, and inquiry through diverse collaborative activities in the classroom, including pair work, role play, and discussions. The findings of the studies by Kusumoto (2018), Moghadam et al. (2023), and Poštić et al. (2023) also indicate the significance of student-centered collaborative strategies in developing CT skills and align with Vygotsky’s constructivism (1976). Prospective teachers’ perceptions regarding CT in the FE course differed widely in the two phases of the study. During Part-I, some prospective teachers viewed CT as copying and criticizing others. Prospective teachers seemed hesitant and lacked confidence in expressing their views. According to Hoodbhoy (2009), in Pakistan’s context, CT doesn’t seem realistic, given the hierarchical nature of society and the teacher’s role as an authoritative figure. The reason might be the prospective teachers’ lack of clarity on the concept of CT, which is why they were hesitant to comment.

In Pakistan's educational setting, classroom dynamics discourage active student participation and contact in teacher-centered classrooms. In this context, the prevailing notion of an ideal classroom environment is often associated with a strict expectation of complete silence, as highlighted by Manan and Mehmood (2015). Questioning is usually perceived as a sign of disrespect in classroom settings, especially toward individuals of higher age and authority, such as instructors. Therefore, in a cultural context where achieving pin-drop silence in the classroom is seen as an accomplishment, an interactive class filled with energy and enthusiasm is a new and highly appreciated phenomenon for both prospective teachers and teacher educators, also reported in research (Wang et al., 2020). It is well-documented that students and teachers usually prefer the prescribed textbook, as completing its contents and recalling information from it can guarantee good marks in examinations (Government of Pakistan, 2006).

Findings from the focus group discussion at the end of the FE course in Part-II indicated a considerable change in understanding of CT skills. Although there is uncertainty regarding prospective teachers’ understanding of the types of questions necessary to underpin CT, they all recognized the role of “asking questions” to boost their thinking. This finding is consistent with the results of the studies conducted by Manan and Mehmood (2015), Moghadam et al. (2023), Poštić et al. (2023), and Saeed et al. (2012), which indicate that students be given opportunities to engage in questioning, debating, and reflecting on fostering CT skills. Conversely, the observation of classes reported that the questions were asked to weigh evidence, evaluate, and look for alternatives aligned with Paul and Elder’s (2001) CT model.

The changes in Part-II were deeply rooted in their classroom learning experiences, characterized by activity-based approaches and the opportunity to practice and refine their CT skills freely. Research by Bag and Gürsoy (2021), Li (2016), Moghadam et al. (2023), and Paul and Elder (2014) also have similar findings. This depicted that the FE course prioritize implementing diverse pedagogical strategies to meet the course objectives effectively. This includes transitioning from a traditional teacher-focused approach to a more student-centered learning paradigm, also revealed in Newman and Latifi’s (2021) study. The prospective teachers’ attempt to develop their ways of communication is in line with Kusumoto (2018) and Sternberg’s (1986) recognition of the purpose of CT, that is, to gain better answers to “problems.”

The prospective teachers acknowledged the significance of cultivating CT skills through an interactive educational environment. Despite the absence of strict adherence to a particular course design paradigm, the discernible impact of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is evident, as it underscores the significance of social interaction in learning, also revealed in Wang’s et al. (2020) research. The activities’ inherent structure fostered a conducive environment for prospective teachers to engage in CT, as they were prompted to inquire, assess, and deliberate on evidence to enhance their proficiency in communication. This phenomenon can be interpreted as an illustration of scaffolding, wherein pupils receive assistance and direction to facilitate their progression toward more advanced levels of cognition and the acquisition of enhanced abilities (Kusumoto, 2018).

The two distinct themes of student-centered classrooms and textbook-free learning enabled prospective teachers to think critically and use these skills for further learning. This process entails liberating oneself from inflexible textbook mandates and strict topic covering, shifting away from conventional lecture-oriented approaches, and cultivating increased learner engagement and active participation. According to Paul and Elder (2019), bounding students to depend solely on one prescribed textbook, lecture notes, and handouts hinders their CT abilities. Moreover, this often compels students to rely on provided information rather than forming opinions or seeking answers independently.

The classroom observation conducted during the FE course highlighted a noticeable departure from the conventional courses in Pakistan. Observation of classes in the FE course also revealed substantial evidence of appropriate and productive questioning. Prospective teachers were encouraged to ask questions and critically examine the speakers’ or authors’ potential biases or underlying motivations. The teacher educators enthusiastically and innovatively implemented the activities, and prospective teachers actively engaged in and energetically responded to these activities. This enthusiastic participation was indicative of developing CT skills. An Le and Hockey (2022), Etemadfar et al. (2020), Moghadam et al. (2021), and Yuan et al. (2021) encourage deliberate instruction and supportive structures to facilitate the gradual cultivation of CT within language learning environments.

Prospective teachers actively engaged in cooperative endeavors and showed a strong sense of excitement and commitment in their collective implementation of practical tasks. Various instructional strategies were utilized in the classroom, encompassing collaborative activities such as pair and group work, idea generation through brainstorming, facilitated discussions, critical analysis, oral presentations, and constructive feedback from teacher-educators and fellow prospective teachers. This depicts evidence of providing opportunities for questioning, weighing, evaluating ideas, and looking for alternatives. These findings align with the research conducted by Bag and Gürsoy (2021) and Paul and Elder (2014) that suggests providing students the opportunities to participate in discussions, dialogues, debates, and accessing information from reliable sources to eliminate barriers to their CT.

Conclusion and Implications

The transformation observed in prospective teachers’ perceptions of CT after the FE course aligns with the study’s framing of CT as a multifaceted skill involving the mastery of subject matter and active engagement in the learning process through questioning, analyzing, and inferring. While the prospective teachers began contemplating the art of questioning and its role in the classroom, their understanding remained in a developmental phase. Nonetheless, there was a discernible progression in their grasp of various CT skills.

This study is significant not only for prospective teachers but also for teacher educators and current teachers. Prospective teachers’ perspectives provide valuable indicators for designing instructional strategies to enhance CT at the university level. The implications extend to all university courses, advocating for integrating CT skills for personal and academic development among students. Furthermore, the study underlines the importance of student-centered approaches in inhibiting rote memorization and encouraging questioning, a vital element in the broader spectrum of learning.

The study yields promising results regarding CT skills and suggests parallel guidelines be developed across other disciplines in this digital age. The study provides a broad avenue for learners to dialogue and debate and offers considerable opportunities for developing CT skills. The prospective teachers enjoyed the freedom of thinking and using the questioning technique. However, more student-centered learning approaches were a novelty for the prospective teachers, but they revealed the opportunities these approaches offered.

This study holds considerable importance in advancing and comprehending CT, a concept that appears to be lacking in higher education curricula in Pakistan. Promoting knowledge regarding cultivating CT skills is advisable to enhance students’ educational trajectories and prepare them for post-university endeavors. English language teachers must devote particular attention and exert additional efforts to enhance CT skills and implement CT-focused teaching strategies in their everyday instructional routines. The factors influencing the improvement of CT skills encompass transforming the teacher’s role from being an authority on knowledge to a facilitator who guides students in exploring knowledge, acknowledging and accepting students’ limited background in CT skills, recognizing the need to replace memory-based assessment systems with those that demand CT, designing interactive teaching strategies that encourage student discussions, debates, and argumentation. In Pakistan, questioning focuses on factual information, primarily involving lower-order thinking skills. However, in student-centered classrooms, it is crucial to elevate the level of questioning to encompass higher-order thinking skills. These questions should be meticulously designed to pose challenges across multiple dimensions of classroom activities.

Future research in CT skill development and innovative teaching methodologies could draw from diverse perspectives by exploring project-based learning, cultural influences, virtual simulations, and metacognitive approaches. To transform teacher education, incorporating AI-driven digital tools and other technological advancements to cultivate reasoning and CT skills among prospective teachers may be investigated.

Footnotes

Authors’ Contributions

1. Shaista Irshad Khan: Conceptualization, Data Collection, Thematic Analysis.

2. Shawana Fazal: Writing Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Thematic Analysis, Discussion, Conclusion, Editing, and Proofreading.

3. Farrukh Nazir: Introduction, Literature Review, Thematic Analysis, Editing, APA format.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

This study is a part of the doctoral dissertation. The participants’ quotes in the findings are taken from an unpublished dissertation titled ‘An Investigation of the Concept of Critical Thinking in the Context of a Functional English Course in a B.Ed Degree in Pakistan.’ Ph.D. thesis

The College of Social Science Research Ethics Committee of the University of Glasgow gave permission (Reference No: 400120076) to conduct the study and reviewed the doctoral dissertation.

The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was taken from the participants of the current study. The participants were briefed about the objectives and purpose of the study. The participants were further informed that their participation in the study is voluntary and they can withdraw at any time and do not need to provide a reason.

ORCID iD

Shawana Fazal

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author and first author upon request.

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A Qualitative Study of Prospective Teachers’ Perceptions About Critical Thinking Skills Before and After Studying the Functional English Course

Abstract

Plain language summary

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

Methodology

Population and Sample

Research Instruments

Data Collection

Focus Group Discussions

Unstructured Observation

Data Analysis

Ethical Considerations

Findings

Part-I

Perceptions About CT Skills Before Studying the FE Course

Copying Relevant Ideas

Focus on Rote Learning

Teacher-centered Classroom

Part-II

Perceptions About CT Skills After Studying the FE Course

Clarity and Precision of CT

Role of Open Questioning

Application of CT Skills Through an Activity-Based Approach

A Specific Textbook-free Course

Student-centered Class

Discussion

Conclusion and Implications

Footnotes

Authors’ Contributions

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

Ethical Approval

Informed Consent

ORCID iD

Data Availability

References