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Abstract

The elderly population becomes increasingly vulnerable due to changes in family structures, loneliness, and social exclusion. Social inclusion markedly improves the psychological well-being of elderly adults, mitigating their loneliness and distress. The study investigates how physical amenities in urban green spaces promote social inclusion among the elderly through peer interactions. The welfare of elderly individuals is greatly reliant on park infrastructure, encompassing walkways, lighting, sanitation facilities, and sitting facilities. The quantitative methods address the research question by utilizing a partial least squares and path model derived from data collected from 203 elderly park users. We utilized an exponential, non-discriminatory snowball sampling to select parks as study areas. Participants completed a pre-designed survey questionnaire about the benefits of parks’ physical amenities for elderly social inclusion. We employ Logit and path modeling techniques for data analysis. The results demonstrate that the physical amenities in parks significantly improved social inclusion among the elderly populations. The amenities, including sitting and toilet facilities, boost interactions among elderly people. If older people perceive the prevalence of peers and stay a long time with them, they spend healthy time on interactions leading to inclusivity. Park amenities are significantly correlated to social inclusion and longevity at 1% level (p=001). Elderly inclusion fosters their mental health, alleviating isolation and stress and resulting in longevity. Age friendly urban green spaces established by municipal governance boost social inclusion

Keywords

green space elderly population social inclusion physical amenity sustainable urban development

Introduction

A deficiency of biological resources, including clean air, water, and nutritious food, impacts vulnerable populations, resulting in alterations to their physical and mental composition that drive people towards social isolation (Binningsbø et al., 2007; Schrempft et al., 2019). Environmental deterioration, especially in metropolitan areas, undermines societal stability by leading to a depletion of biological and renewable resources. Social isolation increases the likelihood of mental stress and anxiety among the older adults (Mani et al., 2013; Y. Yang et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). The social mainstream marginalizes vulnerable populations, especially the older adults, resulting in multiple forms of deprivation, such as restricted access to healthcare, diminished social contacts, and financial instability (Wynne & Mcananey, 2009). This social exclusion undermines inclusion, hindering the advancement of social wellness (Agarwal et al., 2019; Silver & Miller, 2003). Social inclusion is a participatory process for marginalized individuals, providing access to resources (Li et al., 2024; Y. Yang et al., 2018) that promote social harmony, cohesiveness, and inclusive communities.

The advantages of urban green spaces for social inclusion are numerous. Social inclusion significantly contributes to enhancing psychological well-being and alleviating depressive anxiety (Kawachi & Berkman, 2001; Tough et al., 2017). Inclusivity advantages older adults individuals, as their physical and mental well-being progressively declines post-60 years of age (Pilania et al., 2019). A resilient community generates social network services(Kapucu et al., 2021) that foster opportunities for social integration (Cope et al., 2018; McCalman et al., 2016). The senior population necessitates physical exercise that integrates their social well-being, including participation, connection, and personal relationships. Social inclusiveness for older adults encompasses activities that promote peer bonding via group conversations, common interests, and reciprocal support, so enhancing well-being. Park patrons, particularly the older adults, convene every day to exchange their views, emotions, and perspectives while seated with their contemporaries following physical exercise. In urban park environments, they enhance their social engagement with recreational activities and aesthetic initiatives. Green spaces facilitate human interaction with nature (Afriyanie et al., 2018; Baycan & Nijkamp, 2009) and create a social setting for interpersonal engagement (Dillen et al., 2011).

Residents’ engagement with green spaces enhances community cohesion, instilling a sense of ownership within the neighborhood. Green areas enhance the quality of life (Eshun & Asibey, 2024) and inclusion which fosters beneficial health practices by encouraging regular exercise, nutritious nutrition, and effective stress management, especially among older adults.

Urban green space, characterized as publicly accessible open areas in urban environments featuring vegetation and foliage (Cohen & Janicki-Deverts, 2009; Chowdhury et al., 2015), includes parks, green pavements, urban forests, agricultural areas, pocket gardens, communal courtyards, and waterways.

This study examines parks, a category of green space, and recreational activities. The outcomes of this study will offer distinctive and significant insights for urban planners and public health professionals, augmenting their comprehension of the role of urban green spaces in promoting social inclusion among the older adults.

Social inclusion, characterized by trust, acceptance, and a sense of belonging stemming from social interaction (Carpiano, 2006; Comstock et al., 2010; Li et al., 2024; W. Yang et al., 2016), together with accessibility, are essential components of urban design and public health. Connections within neighborhoods modulate the association between neighborhood greenery and happiness (Wang et al., 2019). Urban parks facilitate social interaction, establish a network, and enhance the well-being of older persons, especially those experiencing loneliness. In a metropolis marked by pollution and congestion, the necessity for enhanced social contact at the community level is apparent (Tan et al., 2019; Zhou & Rana, 2012).

Many works on the role of green parks have been done in previous studies. For example, the contribution of urban park to mental health (Bai et al., 2024), recreation (Wajchman-Świtalska et al., 2023), and aesthetic value (Januartiputri et al., 2023) is widely recognized in academia. Apart from this, social acceptance (Rahman & Shorkar, 2021), community engagement(Burrage, 2011), social esteem(Rahman & Shorkar, 2021), and sustainability gain benefitted from urban natural settings. Social inclusion for the older adult community has less been prioritized in previous studies. This work has effort to explore how green space contributes to the inclusiveness of older adult people among other communities. Urban parks provide as a venue for social integration and community resources for individuals of all ages. This study seeks to examine the impact of urban green spaces on the social inclusiveness of the older adult population, specifically analyzing how park physical amenities (e.g., seating benches, lighting, sanitary facilities, and community clubs) influence inclusion. Specific research questions are as follows:

How do the physical amenities of urban parks contribute to inclusion of older adult people?

Which amenities of park are responsible for interactions leading to older adults’ inclusivity?

The research findings possess substantial practical consequences for urban planners and public health experts, highlighting their essential and esteemed role in developing inclusive green space. This study recommends the creation of age-friendly park infrastructure to facilitate healthy aging.

Theoretical Perspectives: Social Capital Theory

Previous research has explored social capital in areas like cultural deviance, networking, communication technology, and neighborhood ties. However, the role of urban green spaces in supporting social inclusion has received less attention. This study looks at how parks help older adults build social capital by encouraging interaction and a sense of belonging. Here, social capital means the shared norms, values, trust, networks, and relationships that support cooperation and collective action (Bhandari & Yasunobu, 2009). Social inclusion grows from these connections and is a key part of social capital, including the resources people gain through lasting networks of mutual recognition. These networks offer important social resources (Bisung & Elliott, 2014; Marbuah et al., 2021).

Social capital theory contends that social relationships are resources that can lead to the development and accumulation of human capital (Burt, 2000). For example, a stable family environment can support educational attainment and support the development of highly valued and rewarded skills and credentials (Savage & Kanazawa, 2004). Machalek and Martin (2015) contend that reformulating sociological explanations of crime in terms of evolutionary theory can provide new insights about deterrents to crime. Two concepts linked to neighborhoods and community have recently been influential in urban geography and urban policy making: social capital and collective efficacy (Kadetz, 2018). As with other forms of capital, social capital is a resource that communities may draw upon to further opportunities and services within neighborhoods. There have been studies suggesting that social capital can depend on the personality characteristics of individuals. It was highlighted that self-monitoring may be the core personality variable that explains how individuals develop social capital (Mehra et al., 2001). Individuals differ in their capacity to read social situations and to interact with others.

This research expands current ideas about social capital by examining how green spaces help older adults connect with others and feel included. Social capital affects crime, relationships, and personal traits. Some features of parks can help older adults feel more connected to their community. Many older adults face isolation, depression, and social exclusion, which can also affect their health.

Methods

Contextualizing Study Area

Dhaka, the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, is situated in South Asia, adjacent to the western, northern, and northeastern regions of India and the southeastern region of Myanmar. Dhaka is situated in the center of Bangladesh at a latitude of 23.8103°N and a longitude of 90.4125°E. The city, governed by the Dhaka City Corporation (DCC), spans 316 square kilometers and has a population of 2.38 billion. The percentage of the population aged 65 and older rose from 2.68% in 1960 to 5.10% in 2017, signifying an expanding older adult. There is a lack of recreational and physical activities in Dhaka, despite the fact that there are numerous senior homes where residents can receive housing, food, medical care, and rehabilitation services. Furthermore, following physical activity, community members face obstacles to participating in leisure activities (Chowdhury et al., 2015). For those with back pain, hearing and vision problems, arthritis, diabetes, high blood pressure, dementia, depression, and other conditions, there is a limited amount of information and activity needed to support optimal health and performance(Mollah, 2014; Rahman & Shorkar, 2021). Due to pressure and growing medical costs, Bangladesh’s older adults face unemployment and social security issues.

In 1989, healthy green spaces included 5,202 hectares, representing 17%. Notwithstanding a 47% decline since 1989, the quantity of healthy green areas has risen to 2,754, representing a 9% growth. In addition to the 4% and 2% reductions in robust green areas, there was a further fall of 55.5% in 2009 and 50% in 2020 (Nawar et al., 2022). Between 1989 and 2020, the quantity of healthy green areas diminished by 88.24%. In contrast, metropolitan and other regions underwent considerable growth. In 1989, the area was 17,859 hectares, which expanded to approximately 25,005 hectares by 2020 (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Green space decreasing trend in Dhaka from 1989 to 2020(Nawar et al., 2022).

The distinct opinions and experiences of the 203 surveyed participants (n = 203) enhanced the study. Every participant, all over the age of 50, performed a crucial role in the study. Their varied backgrounds and experiences, sourced from different metropolitan regions in Dhaka, influenced this research. Their participation was not merely a data point but a substantial input that became the foundation of our findings. Sixty-six percent of the participants (n = 141) were male. Over 50% (n = 112) possessed a bachelor’s degree. Fewer than half (n = 92) had completed education just through 1st to 12th grade. A considerable portion of respondents (n = 56) were unemployed, whilst the participants (n = 101) were employed in both governmental and non-governmental sectors.

The predominant participants were male. Sixty-six-point one percent of senior males and thirty-three-point four percent of females used the park. Businesspersons constituted 18% of the respondents, whereas 47.8% of the participants were engaged in informal employment. Their active engagement and varied backgrounds have greatly enhanced the reliability and validity of the findings, for which we are profoundly appreciative of their contribution.

Bahadur Shah Park

Bahadur Shah Park, previously referred to as Victoria Park, serves as a living space to the city’s illustrious history. During the British colonial era, it emerged as a prominent assembly point during the independence movement. This park, situated in the South Dhaka City Corporation (DSCC), Bangladesh, at coordinates 23°42′33.3″N, 90°24′44.4″E, constitutes a modest yet notable component of the urban landscape (Table 1). The park is frequented by around 5,000 regular users, comprising 3,000 visitors who converge on the park throughout the morning and evening hours. The park includes a circular pathway, a concrete seat for repose, a privately kept toilet and several green trees, offering a tranquil refuge in the midst of the vibrant metropolis.

Table 1.

Park List in Geographical Direction (From South to North).

ID	Park name	Latitude and longitude	Service area (city-district)	Park category	Authority (maintenance)	Usability
1	Gulistan Park	23°42′30″N, 90°24′38″E	Paltan	Urban park	DSCC
2	Siraj-ud-Dowla	23°42′49”N, 90°24′23″E	Kotwali	Urban park	DSCC	Partial
3	Baldah Garden	23°43′06″N, 90°25′04″E	Gendaria	Botanical garden	Forestry Dept.	Partial
4	Bahadur Shah Park	23°43′09.3″N, 90°24′44.4″E	Kotwali	Urban park	DSCC	Partial
5	Suhrawardi Udyan	23°43′34″N, 90°24′31″E	Shahbagh	Multipurpose	Multiparty	Partial
6	Farmgate Park	23°45′5”N, 90°23′5”E	Tejgaon	Urban park	DNCC	Partial
7	Dhanmondi Lake Park	23°44′44″N, 90°22′39″E	Kalabagan	Multipurpose	Multiparty	Full
8	Panthakunja	23°44′56”N, 90°23′36”E	Tejgaon	Urban park	DNCC	Partial
9	Ramna Park	23°44′57″N, 90°24′3″E	Ramna	Arbor garden	PWD	Full
10	Hazaribagh Children Park	23°59′47.8320″N,85°22′ 8.7960″E	Hazaribagh	Urban park	DSCC	Partial
11	Rajuk Central Park	23.7921108°N, 90.4162819°E	Gulshan	Urban park	Rajuk	Partial
12	Shyamali Children Park	23.7731°N, 90.3656°E	Adabar	Urban park	DNCC	Partial
13	Boishakhi Park	23763.950°N, 90.047°E	Gulshan	Urban park	Banani Society	Partial
14	Chandrima Udyan	23.7667°N, 90.3781°E	Sher-e-Bangla	Botanical garden	PWD	Full
15	Baridhara Park	23.8004°N, 90.4085°E	Uttara	Urban park	Baridhara Society	Partial
16	Uttara Sector 12 Park	23.8718°N, 90.3832°E	Uttara	Urban park	Uttara Society 12	Partial
17	Uttara Sector 14 Park	23.8627°N, 90.3855°E	Uttara	Urban park	Uttara Society 14	Partial
18	Uttara Sector 7 Park	23.8695°N, 90.3967°E	Uttara	Urban park	Uttara Society 7	Partial
19	Gulshan Lake Park	23.8757°N, 90.4206°E	Gulshan	Urban park	Gulshan Society	Full
20	Uttara Sector 13 Park	23.8719718°N, 90.387021°E	Uttara Banani	Urban park	Uttara Society 13	Partial
21	Banani Park	23.88°N, 90.39°E		Urban Park	Banani Society	Partial

Note. DNCC = Dhaka North City Corporation; DSCC = Dhaka South City Corporation; PWD = Power and Water Supply Development Board.

Data source. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS).

Ramna Park

Ramna Park, Dhaka’s most significant green space, is more than an “arbor garden.” It’s a sanctuary of peace and tranquility. In 1610 CE, Mughal Emperor Subedar Islam Khan established this lush garden as palace greenery for aesthetic pleasure (Rajia et al., 2015). Ramna Park is conveniently located in the official center of Dhaka, coordinated at 23°44′16″N Latitude, 90°24′3″E Longitude (Figure 2). It occupies a land area of 0.32 square kilometers (but it was 0.42 square kilometers at the beginning stage), with a superb lake covering 8.76 acres of protected watersheds (Rajia et al., 2015). The service area (Ramna-city district) possesses 10,181 remarkable older adults with a density of 2,977 people per square kilometer. More than likely, 300 concrete benches contribute frequently to older adults in both morning and evening, predominantly after physical exercise. Older adult users keenly enjoy the post-exercise moment, exchanging their mutual feelings with their peers.

Figure 2.

Spatial distribution of Dhaka city’s green space (Labib et al., 2020).

Chandrima Udyan

Chandrima Udyan, an urban park, is a treasure trove of amenity. It is a botanical garden located alongside the Bangladesh National Parliament House in northeastern Dhaka. The park spans 73 acres and features a pleasant lake and a connecting bridge. Various sturdy trees and shrubs adorn it, creating a serene and amiable environment. The park offers well-maintained walking paths, sitting areas, and recreational facilities such as a playground with modern equipment. It also provides amenities like clean restrooms and food stalls offering a variety of local and international cuisines, ensuring a comfortable and enjoyable visit for its 30,000 everyday users. The park has a dedicated area for cultural events and a small museum showcasing the city’s history. Additionally, it has a fitness center, a library, and a swimming pool for the public to use.

Gulshan Lake Park

Gulshan Lake is a privately managed urban park ideally situated in Gulshan-2, Dhaka. Gulshan, an adequately planned residential area, lies in the northeastern part of the capital city. Upper- and upper-middle-class people, including diplomatic personnel, live in this zone. The park covers 8.36 acres of land (Neema et al., 2014), coordinated at 23.8004° N, 90.4085° E. The Gulshan Society, a civic organization, efficiently manages the park, despite the Bangladesh government owning the land property. It has the availability of physical amenities (walkway, toilet, first aid center, musical theatre, sitting benches) and natural resources. The service area, Gulshan (a city district), hosts around 1,398 older adult people per square kilometer. About 8,000 people of diverse ages use the park daily for physical and recreational activity. The park has a dedicated security team and first aid center to ensure the safety and well-being of its visitors.

Reliability and Validity of Instruments

When creating the testing survey and assessment tools, we employed Cronbach’s α. The reliability of the instruments was demonstrated by the higher Cronbach’s α value (.813) obtained from the correlation test between the items. Cronbach’s α reliability is one of the most popular metrics for assessing reliability in the social and organizational sciences. The reliability of a sum (or average) of measurements, which could be raters, events, alternative forms, or test or questionnaire items, is referred to as Cronbach’s α reliability. Cronbach’s α is known as a measure of “internal consistency” reliability when the measurements represent multiple questionnaire/test items, which is the most common application (Bonett & Wright, 2014). The validity test in this study was conducted using linear regression through least squares, which is the most prevalent method. However, other types of regression exist (Ludbrook, 2010). Multiple independent input variables may be included in regression models that are employed to evaluate validity.

Sampling Strategy

This paper implemented a two-stage sampling strategy, blending systematic random and snowball sampling (Figure 3), to ensure the highest accuracy and reliability in the findings. We meticulously selected four of the 21 parks in Dhaka using systematic random sampling. Moreover, the survey selected 203 participants through exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling. This method began with randomly selecting initial participants from a list of park visitors, ensuring a diverse representation (Johnson, 2014). We assigned a unique number to each visitor and used a random number generator to select the initial few participants. We then asked these participants to refer other potential participants, a process that continued until we achieved the desired sample size. This comprehensive approach ensures that the chosen parks and users accurately reflect Dhaka’s urban park scenario, bolstering the research’s validity.

Figure 3.

Methods in diagram.

The systematic random sampling formula for interval (i) is: N/n = 21/4 = 5.25 Where N denotes the size of the total population, n is the size of the sample population, and i is the sample interval. The formula showed that the interval is above 5 (i = 5). Randomly, we selected first park number 4 as any number between 1 and 5. After that, the sampling chose every (i + 5th) park in the sample until we reached the last one. Thus, the 4th, 9th, 14th, and 19th parks were selected as samples. It lists 21 parks in geographical direction (based on latitudes) from south to north. The study chose the first two parks from the south and the others from north Dhaka. The southern part of Dhaka is known as “Old Dhaka.” It is a highly populated zone with a lower-middle-class population. This is mainly a commercial area. North Dhaka is a less densely populated zone with a middle-upper-class population. It is a “New Dhaka” that accommodates administrative and political organizations. The heterogeneous geographical location features, users’ characteristics (representing different socio-economic groups), and park facility (representing various levels of maintenance and amenity) were the reasonable basis of the sample selection.

Study Participants

The exponential non-discriminative sampling method addressed the considerable issue of locating older adult participants. This method enlists volunteers who do not subsequently recruit numerous others, in contrast to exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling, where each participant suggests additional possible participants. Snowball sampling is advantageous when target populations are difficult to access and a comprehensive population list is lacking (Johnson, 2014). The sampling method includes populations that are concealed or obscured, possibly engaged in sensitive matters. The parks are required to keep records of users and their personal information, complicating the identification of a specific participant. Political and religious values in society can sometimes obstruct the revelation of personal information. Moreover, similar to random sampling, the snowball sampling approach is not as unregulated as its designation suggests.

We were extensively engaged in the development and oversight of the sample’s inception and progression. Dhaka has a scarcity of parks, and the existing ones have limited functionality. The city’s density further restricts the population’s mobility, leading to a decrease in older park users. We administered the survey to as many older adults people as possible. Female participants were less accessible owing to sociocultural and religious beliefs. In the final stage, we identified no additional responders after visiting the designated four parks. The data collecting completed upon the identification of redundancy, with a sample size of 203 older adult respondents, underscoring the intricacy of the research process. The difficulties encountered in selecting senior respondents encompassed the necessity to honor their privacy and cultural norms, the scarcity and limited accessibility of parks, and the city’s compactness, which impedes the constructive mobility of populations. We tackled these problems by interviewing a substantial number of senior people and concluding data gathering upon the emergence of redundancy.

Data Collection

This research employed a survey methodology to gather primary data from selected parks. The data collection was a self-administered survey utilizing a pre-structured questionnaire. Survey methodology is a professional procedure used to establish the state of a system or subsystem. It must be verified, at a minimum, through a pilot study. Survey research designs are common in information management and systems research. Surveys may seem simple, easy to implement, and cost-effective (Gilbert & Prion, 2017).

We developed the planned questionnaire following a comprehensive literature review, which was subsequently validated by two prominent academic experts. At that juncture, we executed pilot research involving 13 participants, modifying and revalidating around 15% of the questions. The analysis must incorporate data obtained from the pilot research. Six items were nominal, while the remaining were ordinal variables utilizing a 5-point scale (1–5). The percentage of responses that are “satisfied” or “very satisfied” is calculated. CSAT (Customer Satisfaction Score) method applied to scoring refers to customer satisfaction score and is a metric used to measure the level of customer satisfaction with respect to a given product, service, or experience (Chakrabartty, 2014). This metric is obtained through surveys or questionnaires in which customers are asked to rate their satisfaction on a predefined scale. Prior to the survey, the collector identified himself to the respondent and succinctly outlined the study’s aims. The surveyor thereafter acquired verbal agreement from the interviewees and sought demographic information, including age, gender, educational attainment, monthly income, and job status. At this juncture, the surveyor elucidated the primary elements of the schedule about parks’ physical amenity impact on older adults’ inclusion.

We provided participants with a questionnaire (a printed page and a pen), directing them to select one of the circles for each question. The survey assessed participants’ views and contentment with parks. We requested relevant probing enquiries as necessary. We prompted respondents to articulate their views regarding the park’s merits or drawbacks. We conducted the survey sitting on benches or pathways located within the parks. The poll was typically done after park users finished their physical activity. Each survey lasted between 30 and 40 min. The data collector documented observations throughout the survey. All surveys were unique. The data collection procedure was rigorous and transparent, ensuring the reliability and validity of the data.

Ethical Considerations

The data collector gave a brief explanation of the study’s goals and introduced himself to the respondent before the survey began. Particularly, the religious values of the female respondents were clarified. Additionally, respondents have not been asked any questions about their gender or political affiliation. Human rights concerns were left out of the interviewees’ conversations and the questionnaire itself. After getting the interviewees’ verbal consent, the surveyor asked for demographic information.

Data Analysis

We meticulously initiated data analysis by repeatedly reading survey results to familiarize ourselves with the data. Then, we classified data into demographics, social services, infrastructural amenities, and safety measures for comprehensive statistical analysis. Data definition entails creating labels and values for each variable. Descriptive statistics computed the frequencies of variables. Before inferential analysis, we tested the reliability of data using statistical correlation techniques. We also ran Cronbach’s α test using the reliability command, and results showed a score of .71, indicating a high level of reliability. Inferential analysis included a logit model and path analysis.

The study concluded with path modeling results and used result triangulation. The models analyzed the correlation coefficient among variables. The study demonstrated a correlation between social inclusion for the older adult population and urban green space, providing a reliable basis for future research and policy formulation. Our findings’ high reliability, as evidenced by the Cronbach’s α test, should instill confidence in the audience about their validity, ensuring that our research can be a trusted resource for future endeavors.

Results

A Statistical Description of Survey Responses

We perform field surveys with a questionnaire featuring five-point scales. The survey considers socio-demographic characteristics and the influence of urban parks on older adult users. Respondents express their satisfactory opinion (about 75%) about parks’ social inclusiveness. They respond with, “How will you rate park inclusiveness?” Similarly, participants expressed satisfaction with the seating facility and municipal governance, scoring nearly 78 and 60%, respectively. On the other hand, participants (nearly 60%) were dissatisfied with the park’s social atmosphere. 50% and 72% of park users expressed dissatisfaction with the physical amenities, particularly the walkways and toilet facilities. About 61% and 59% of respondents expressed their dissatisfaction with park security measures and access to community clubs, respectively. Respondents responded to the question, "How satisfied are you with security measures and access to the community club?"

Contribution of Green Space to Social Inclusion

The results revealed several key findings. Firstly, park inclusiveness was positively linked to older adults’ social inclusion and was statistically significant at 1% (β = 4.517, p = .000). This finding underscores the transformative potential of creating inclusive urban green spaces that cater to the needs of the older adults and foster their overall well-being. Secondly, a friendly social atmosphere positively impacted social inclusion (Table 2), although it was not statistically significant (β = 1.440, p = .035). On the other hand, an unfriendly social atmosphere had a negative correlation with social integration, which we define as the degree of an individual’s connection to and participation in their community, specifically the urban park community. It was statistically insignificant, as its p-value was 0.019 (Table 3). Access to infrequently held park recreation events negatively correlated with social inclusion. This correlation was statistically significant (Table 3) at 1% (β =− 1.311, p = .000). These findings suggest that urban green spaces play a crucial role in promoting social inclusion among the older adult population and that the management of green spaces should priorities inclusivity and a friendly social atmosphere.

Table 2.

Participants’ Social-Demographic Characteristics.

Variables	n	%
Gender
Male	382	66.1
Female	193	33.4
Occupation
Government service	29	5
Non-governmental service	86	14.9
Businessperson	105	18.2
Self-employed	32	5.5
Unemployed	50	8.7
Others	276	47.8
Monthly income
$ 000–118	157	27.2
$119–236	69	11.9
$237–355	49	8.5
$356–473	13	2.2
$474–592	22	3.8
$595 and up	55	9.5
Educational attainment
Primary	54	9.3
Secondary and higher secondary	209	36.2
Undergraduate	216	37.4
Postgraduate	93	16.1
Social atmosphere
Extremely satisfied	40	6.9
Satisfied	65	11.2
Moderately satisfied	112	19.4
Dissatisfied	209	36.2
Extremely dissatisfied	137	23.7
Contribution of park to social ties
Very helpful	237	41
Helpful	199	34.4
Neutral	76	13.1
Not so helpful	37	6.4
Not helpful at all	18	3.1
Awareness of park rules
Aware	61	15.1
Neutral	315	54.5
Unaware	119	29.9
Seating arrangements
Extremely satisfied	74	12.8
Satisfied	172	29.8
Moderately satisfied	214	37
Toilet facilities
Satisfied	63	10.9
Neutral	85	14.7
Dissatisfied	165	28.5
Extremely dissatisfied	255	44.1

Note. n = number, % = percentage.

Table 3.

Contribution of Green Space to Elderly Social Ties.

YES, relative to NO				NO relative to YES
Variables	Coeff.	SE	Sig.	Coeff.	SE	Sig.
Park inclusiveness	4.517	1.070	0.000***
Friendly social atmosphere	1.440	.684	0.035**
Unfriendly social atmosphere				−.931	.396	0.019**
Frequency of recreational programs				−1.311	.346	0.000***
Availability of community club				−6.790	1.804	0.000***
Number of elderly peers	2.902	1.041	0.001***
Age-friendly behavior of young users	1.253	.635	0.048**
Unfriendly behavior of young users				−1.850	.477	0.000***
Lack of feeling secure				−12.632	4.938	0.011**
Using the park from 1/2 to 1 hour	2.204	.771	0.001***
Using the park from 1 to 1 and 1/2 hour				−1.653	.735	0.025**
Well-maintained seating arrangements	1.092	.809	0.177
Inadequately maintained seating arrangements				−1.458	.811	0.072*
Inadequately maintained toilet facilities				−2.482	.686	0.000***
Primary education	−1.727	1.035	0.095*
Secondary education	−1.399	1.090	0.199
Undergraduate	−2.497	1.016	0.014**
Distance less than 1/4 km				−2.410	.560	0.000***
distance from 1/2 to 1 km	1.349	.766	0.079*
Non-governmental service	1.024	.424	0.016**
Businessperson	1.754	.400	0.000***
Self-employed	.782	.551	0.156
Chi-square	41.129	.102	0.001***
Cox and Snell R²	.143
Constant	−.341

Note. Coeff. = Coefficient of correlation, SE = Standard error, Sig. = Significance (p-value).

p < .1. **p < .05. ***p < .01.

Access to community clubs was also associated with social inclusion. Older adults’ peers significantly affect social inclusivity at a 1% level (β = 2.902, p = .001) (Table 3). The young users’ friendly behavior was statistically significant and associated with social inclusion (p = .048) (Table 3). In the meantime, young users’ unfriendly behavior was negatively associated with social inclusion among the older adults’ population and was significant at 1% (β = −1.850, p = .000). Young Park visitors, sometimes exhibit unfriendly behavior in parks, annoy older users. There was a negative correlation between feeling insecure in parks and social inclusion; this relationship was significant at 1% (β = −12.632, p = .011) (Table 3).

A stay in a park for less than 1 hr showed a direct correlation with social bonding, with a significance level of 1%. However, staying more than 1 hour was negatively associated with community inclusion, and this association was statistically significant (p = .025) (Table 2). Well-maintained sitting facility positively corresponded to social inclusion, while poorly maintained sitting negatively corresponded to that. Access to toilet facilities was positively linked to older adults’ inclusion; this acquired substantial significance at 1% (β = 2.482, p = .000) (Table 3). A short distance (less than / kilometer) between users’ homes and parks was negatively associated with community inclusiveness (β = -2.41, p = .000). Table 3 shows a statistically significant positive correlation (p = .079) between a distance of less than 1 kilometer and social inclusion. The Chi-square, Cox, and Snell R square values were 41.129 and 0.143, respectively.

Actualizing the Relationship Between Green Space and Social Inclusion

This section uses triangulation techniques and path modelling to actualize the relationships. The model presents the specifications for evaluating fitness indices among the variables. The model was deemed appropriate as its R-square value was 0.445 (Table 4), signifying that the independent variables account for 44.5% of the variance in the dependent variable. Cronbach’s alpha and rho_A values were .71 and .692, respectively, signifying substantial internal consistency. The composite reliability coefficient was 0.81, signifying substantial reliability. The chi-square and Normed Fit Index values were 223.025 and 0.50, respectively, signifying an adequate fit between the model and the data.

Table 4.

Fitness Specifications of Path Model Indices.

Statistical measure	Score
R ²	0.445
Cronbach’s α	0.71
Rho_A	0.692
Composite reliability	0.81
Chi-square	223.025
NFI	0.5
Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR)	0.094
p-value	.0001

Discussion

The research investigates the impact of physical facilities in urban parks on the inclusion of older adults. The findings indicate that the social components and physical amenities of urban green spaces positively affect the social inclusion of seniors. Fundamental social components include user awareness, younger users’ behaviors, social situations, and recreation events. Urban parks promote social inclusion by virtue of their accessibility and practical use (Kazmierczak, 2013). Public green areas, furnished with essential amenities such as pathways, seating, illumination, and security, function not merely as recreational assets but also as critical determinants of quality of life, social cohesion, and urban sustainability (Kazmierczak, 2013). The critical components emphasized in the study, including these physical amenities, offer clarity and practical importance for urban design and policy development.

They influence the social integration of senior users, establishing a clear foundation for enhancing social inclusion. The findings directly impact urban planning and policy development, highlighting the practical relevance of this research. This research underscores a positive correlation between humans and nature, since the social and architectural components of green parks influence social inclusion. A current study indicates that the creation of green spaces within or near hospitals improves patient recovery and general well-being. Engagement with urban green spaces promotes social cohesion and vital health behaviors, significantly improving psychological well-being. Green spaces promote physical exercise and social interaction, resulting in enhanced health outcomes (Amiraslani, 2021; F. Yang & Huang, 2021). Prior research has highlighted the positive impacts on health and well-being across all age groups; however, this study emphasizes the need to prioritize social inclusion, particularly for older adults.

This study examines the impact of green spaces on the older adults in urban environments, particularly on social inclusion, and represents a substantial contribution to the greenery. Urban forestry and green parks generate natural capital, resources, and ecosystems that deliver essential services to urban environments (Endreny et al., 2017; Kapucu et al., 2023). These services encompass air purification, temperature regulation, stormwater management (Kumar et al., 2019), and the provision of natural habitats for diverse species. These findings contradict our results, as they suggest a favorable association between urban parks, forestry, ecosystems, and climate resilience.

The presence of neighborhood tree canopies and urban tree density enhances our understanding of social integration and human connectivity. Tree planting in urban environments is a cost-effective and very simple intervention (Holtan et al., 2014). The tree canopy in the neighborhood should better reflect our findings on the advantages of public parks for the older adults. The scholar (Holtan et al., 2014) emphasized the relationship between insufficient greenery and the shade offered by community trees, whereas our study focused on the significance of public green spaces in social interactions and the inclusion of the older adults. (Gopal & Nagendra, 2014) emphasized the significance of procuring food and herbs for healthcare, as well as overseeing economic activities in the timber industry. Simultaneously, current research examines the impact of green spaces on the older adults in urban environments, in contrast to the aforementioned study that concentrated on slum regions. This distinct emphasis on senior individuals in urban green areas highlights the significance and application of the findings to urban planners, policymakers, and researchers.

As one of the sustainability indicators for maintaining healthy lifestyles that lead to sustainable lives and promoting well-being in residential communities, planned green spaces are the most crucial social areas for daily interactions (Rao, 2021). Green spaces are essential for improving the quality of urban life due to their ecological and environmental functions, as well as their positive effects on public health, societal well-being(Rahman & Shorkar, 2021), and economic benefits (Smaniotto Costa et al., 2008). The preservation of biodiversity and enhanced human well-being are two significant ecological, environmental, and cultural benefits of urban green spaces. Managing urban green spaces as diversified meadows can yield many ecosystem benefits, such as stormwater infiltration, biodiversity protection, and aesthetics (Paudel & States, 2023). Previous research emphasized community building, healthy life, and ecosystem management by green space. We studied here on the contribution of urban green space to social inclusion, which is unique to academia and will benefit human well-being. Moreover, physical amenities of green space have been focused on more than the whole green park setting.

Limitations

This is the inaugural social study examining the influence of urban green areas on the social inclusion of older adults in Bangladesh and South Asia. Our findings underscore the beneficial correlation between humans and nature for enhanced human well-being and social connection, which is of considerable importance. This study employed a distinctive mixed-methods approach, which is an innovative and compelling technique in this domain. This methodology encompassed a survey of senior park patrons. This novel methodology, which we anticipate will capture your attention, enabled us to collect quantitative data, therefore improving the reliability and validity of the study results. Moreover, no empirical research has been conducted in Bangladesh about the social welfare of the older adults in relation to the urban green environment. The data obtained from a survey questionnaire administered to older park users is pioneering.

Nevertheless, the study possessed several limits, which we recognize to assure the audience of the research’s comprehensiveness. These constraints, however difficult, emphasize the significance of present study results. Accessing essential informants from management institutions, like the Dhaka City Corporation (DCC), the Power and Water Supply Department, and the Gulshan Society, was rendered impossible due to official restrictions in Dhaka. The obstacles comprised bureaucratic inefficiencies and a lack of openness in public space administration, which impeded our capacity to collect extensive data on park management and repair. Acquiring essential information regarding land usage in Dhaka (e.g., parks, vacant land, unlawfully occupied land, built environments) proved to be difficult. Bureaucratic obstacles required the enhancement of critical information on park management and maintenance.

Collecting data from older adult respondents lacking primary education proved to be problematic. Owing to religious values, merely 33.4% of the participants were female. Additionally, we must transcribe the survey, as recent social changes in Dhaka have intensified apprehensions regarding journalists and the intelligence agency. The survey schedule utilized closed-ended questions, so inhibiting transcribing. The research includes a sample of 203 participants. Increased responses would have produced more scientifically robust results.

Conclusion

The findings demonstrate that physical facilities in parks enhance social engagement among the older adults through interactions. The amenities, including sitting and toilet facilities, boost interactions among the older adults. When older adults perceive the presence of peers and spend extended periods of time with them, they engage in healthy interactions that foster inclusivity. Additionally, the presence of younger users and more effective municipal administration in park management directly contribute to social inclusion. Inclusion enhances psychological well-being, significantly contributes to longevity, and increases life satisfaction in older adults. Considering the growing older adults globally, the study’s suggestions are more than just significant; they are essential and motivating. Municipal authorities and urban planners ought to reconfigure metropolitan environments. This includes establishing alternative green spaces to improve older adults’ access to physical and social activities, resulting in a healthier and more socially integrated older adults. These modifications enhance urban livability and sustainability. We assert that implementing these recommendations will enable urban governance and planners to improve the quality of life for older adults, promoting healthier and more active aging.

Furthermore, the municipal government ought to provide age-friendly parks to address the distinct demands and preferences of the older adults, thereby improving the infrastructural and social amenities in densely populated urban areas. The results indicate that age-friendly parks enhance social interaction and physical activity, which are crucial for enhancing the health and well-being of older adults. Public land properties, primarily located in Dhaka’s 26 city districts, are available for the development of new green parks to promote active and healthy aging. Conversely, we advocate for vertical greening, inspired by Singapore’s concept, to improve urban sustainability and mitigate chronic ailments in the senior population. The principal findings equip landscape architects, urban planners, and municipal authorities with the tools necessary for developing an age-friendly urban environment, presenting an optimistic outlook for the future of urban design. We are hopeful that these modifications will improve inclusivity and urban health resilience, particularly for the older adults, thereby promoting a sense of quality of life.

The results of this study provide opportunities for further work on urban green space in terms of older adults’ inclusion. The findings demonstrate how parks’ physical amenities benefit older people. Urban parks are rarely used for social contacts by many elderly individuals with physical disabilities. Here, robotics is meant to provide a solution for park use by older adults. Future study on “robotics use as a physical assistant for older adults’ park usability and inclusion” is recommended. Research in this field may yield fresh insights into the inclusion of older adults and lessen isolation.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Md. Abu Naim Shorkar

K. M. Atikur Rahman

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was funded by grants from the M/S Shuvo Enterprise, Bangladesh (commercial organization); TIN No. 195-103-5203, VAT Reg No. 5221025838.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the authors upon reasonable request.

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Urban Green Space and Social Inclusion: Focused on Public Park’s Contribution to Elderly Population

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Theoretical Perspectives: Social Capital Theory

Methods

Contextualizing Study Area

Bahadur Shah Park

Ramna Park

Chandrima Udyan

Gulshan Lake Park

Reliability and Validity of Instruments

Sampling Strategy

Study Participants

Data Collection

Ethical Considerations

Data Analysis

Results

A Statistical Description of Survey Responses

Contribution of Green Space to Social Inclusion

Actualizing the Relationship Between Green Space and Social Inclusion

Discussion

Limitations

Conclusion

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References