Geographical Resonance: A Narrative Review on the Geographical Influence in Northern and Southern Chinese Folk Songs

Abstract

Folk songs, as a vital component of China’s intangible cultural heritage, have long reflected the country’s geographical and cultural diversity. Over the past decade, scholarship has increasingly examined how regional environments, languages, and social practices shape the formation and transformation of folk song traditions. This article presents a narrative review of 65 studies published between 2014 and 2024, drawing on both English and Chinese sources identified through Google Scholar and CNKI. The synthesis highlights three major trends. First, the enduring north–south binary continues to structure much research, but its explanatory power is limited in transition zones and hybrid repertoires. Second, micro-regional and ethnic-minority perspectives reveal the significance of linguistic prosody, ritual practice, labor rhythms, and migration histories, complicating environment-based explanations. Third, processes of heritagization, tourism, and state policy have increasingly reshaped folk songs, creating tensions between preservation, transformation, and commodification. The review argues that while geography remains a useful heuristic, explanatory frameworks must integrate environmental, linguistic, ritual, migratory, and institutional factors. By clarifying these dynamics, the article contributes to music geography and ethnomusicology, offering methodological directions for future research and practical insights for heritage preservation.

Introduction

China’s vast natural geography, shaped by mountains and rivers, and the diverse ecological environments resulting from differences in climate between the north and south have profoundly influenced people in different regions since ancient times (Jones, 2003; L. Li, 2023). These geographical factors have played a crucial role in shaping folk songs, influencing their themes, melodies, rhythms, and even modes of performance. Mountainous areas, for instance, often give rise to songs with extended vocal techniques to accommodate sound projection over long distances, while plains and river valleys tend to foster narrative ballads and work songs with a more regular rhythm. Geographical features also determine the transmission and evolution of folk songs, as accessibility and interaction between regions contribute to either the preservation of distinct musical styles or the blending of diverse influences. Thus, understanding the impact of geography on folk songs is essential for grasping their development and cultural significance, as these songs serve as living records of regional history, traditions, and daily life. By preserving unique stories, customs, and linguistic expressions, folk songs strengthen the connection between people and their landscapes, ensuring the transmission of cultural heritage across generations.

Cultural Diversity Between Northern and Southern Regions of China

The profound territorial expanse of China has cultivated distinct cultural manifestations between its northern and southern territories, a phenomenon extensively documented in ethnomusicological studies. Northern China’s musical traditions, emerging from expansive plateaus and continental climate patterns, demonstrate pronounced emphases on rhythmic clarity and melodic austerity. Scholars have observed how these compositions frequently employ wide interval leaps, as exemplified in X. Liu’s (2017) analysis of the labor chant “Journey to Sichuan,” where consecutive fourth and fifth intervals musically map the region’s undulating topography and agricultural labor patterns. Conversely, the alluvial basins and subtropical climate of southern China have yielded markedly different sonic characteristics. X. Chen’s (2021) investigation of the Jiangnan ballad “Long Time No Visit” reveals meticulous stepwise melodic progressions that mirror the region’s intricate waterway networks, with ornamented vocal techniques reflecting linguistic tonality patterns in Wu dialects. This fundamental dichotomy extends beyond musical syntax to encompass lyrical narratives that encode regional agricultural practices, hydrological management systems, and vernacular linguistic peculiarities. Such geographical acoustemology not only constitutes the structural foundation of China’s folk music traditions but also serves as an auditory archive preserving local ecological wisdom. The sustained academic interest in these regional variations, as evidenced by continuous research from Wei’s (2016) foundational work to contemporary analyses, underscores their significance in understanding China’s cultural ecology through sonic expressions.

Historical Context and Previous Studies on Chinese Folk Music

As early as the 1960s, scholars began categorizing Chinese folk songs, with initial studies focused on regional variations of Han folk music (Kuo-Huang, 1989). By the 1980s, the field of musicology saw a significant expansion, evolving from a broad concept to specialized research areas (Schimmelpennynck & Kouwenhoven, 1988). During this time, musical geography emerged as a key branch of musicology, focusing on the spatial distribution, variation, and diffusion of musical phenomena, particularly traditional genres (Nash & Carney, 1996). This field delves into how geography influences musical activities, examining the development of regional musical structures and the interaction between cultural and geographical factors (Qiao, 1998).

Musical geography emphasizes the relationship between music and its local environment, highlighting regional music characteristics, and stressing the importance of preserving and researching Chinese traditional music, especially folk songs (Qiao, 2011). This aligns with national efforts to protect intangible cultural heritage and elevate traditional music to a central position in academic and cultural discourse.

China’s vast and varied geography has always played a significant role in shaping its musical diversity. From the distinctive “Jiangnan Silk and Bamboo music” to the “Northeast Errenzhuan,” folk music genres are closely tied to specific regions or river basins (Y. Wang, 2010). These geographical labels not only reflect the rich diversity within Chinese traditional music but also point to an inherent historical awareness of music’s geographical distribution.

Differences in geography have resulted in regional variations in musical characteristics, including differences in personality, emotional expression, and aesthetic preferences between northern and southern China (Xinran et al., 2016). Folk music from these regions, in terms of lyrics, melodies, and performance styles, shows both similarities and distinct differences (Y. S. Wu et al., 2005). Despite these differences, folk songs function as cultural symbols, carrying significance for both northern and southern communities.

In conclusion, the historical and geographical influences on Chinese folk music reveal the rich diversity of regional expressions and underscore the importance of preserving these traditions as vital components of cultural heritage.

Definition of Chinese Folk Songs

The term “folk songs” has emerged in modern discourse, with varying interpretations and definitions across different historical periods and cultural contexts (X. Zhang & Liu, 2020). The book “Chinese Folk Songs” presents six representative definitions, highlighting common descriptors such as “of the working people,”“oral,”“transmitted,”“processed,”“collectively created,” and “social practice” (Q. Chen, 2002). According to the Encyclopedia of Music, folk songs are defined as “songs created by the masses in a collective manner, primarily transmitted orally through auditory memory” (Editorial Committee of the Central Conservatory of Music, 2014). Thus, folk songs represent the orally created expressions of the working populace, reflecting their collective wisdom in social practice.

Further, several key characteristics of Chinese folk songs could be identified: (a) the transmission is primarily among the common people; (b) they serve a social function that addresses the labor and life needs of the community; (c) their creative process of the folk songs is characterized by oral and collective methods; and (d) the primary mode of transmission is through oral tradition.

Based on these definitions, contemporary folk songs are not the product of a single individual; rather, they have undergone continuous refinement and transmission across generations over an extended period. This process has resulted in the development of relatively stable and coherent forms of folk songs.

Regional Division of North and South Chinese Folk Songs

Researchers of Chinese folk music typically categorizes these songs into two primary groups, delineated by the Qinling Mountains (P. Gao et al., 2019). Geographically, the Qinling Mountains can be understood in both narrow and broad terms. In a narrow sense, they are situated in the southern part of Shaanxi Province, between the Wei River and the Han River. In a broader context, the Qinling Mountains extend across the central region of China, beginning in the western portion of Gansu Province and reaching the borders of Shaanxi and Henan, covering approximately 1,600 km.

The area south of the Qinling Mountains falls within a subtropical climate zone, characterized by conditions typical of southern China, while the region to the north belongs to a warm temperate climate zone, reflecting northern characteristics (Kang & Zhu, 2007). Consequently, folk songs originating from the south of the Qinling Mountains display significant differences from those in the north, evident in their lyrical and musical structures as well as their melodies. Notably, the Qinling Mountains function as a watershed for two major rivers in China: the Yangtze River and the Yellow River (H. He et al., 2008). Additionally, they serve as a geographical boundary between northern and southern China. Thus, the demarcation of folk songs from these two regions closely aligns with the geographical boundaries of the country.

The relationship between geography and folk song has long been a central concern in studies of Chinese traditional music. Regional climates, dialects, subsistence patterns, and historical population movements have all been invoked to explain broad differences—most famously the “north–south” heuristic. Recent scholarship, however, problematizes this macro-regional framing by paying closer attention to micro-regional particularities and to social processes that actively reshape musical practice.

The most significant insight from the literature published between 2014 and 2024 is not merely the reiteration that geography influences folk song, but the recognition of a productive tension between two interrelated dynamics. On the one hand, recent studies emphasize micro-regional and ethnic-minority traditions—such as those of the Qiang, Mongolian, and Buyi peoples—that complicate the conventional north–south binary. On the other hand, an expanding body of scholarship documents processes of heritagization, including tourism, festivalization, and policy-led standardization, which reshape local repertoires and sometimes homogenize practices.

Building on this observation, the present study offers a narrative literature review of 65 English- and Chinese-language works published between 2014 and 2024. It comprehensively synthesizes the characteristics and underlying causes of differences between northern and southern folk songs while also critically evaluating the explanatory strength of competing claims. Four research questions guide the review:

1. What are the key differences between northern and southern Chinese folk songs, and how are these differences illustrated in specific examples?

2. In what ways do geographical factors influence the melodies and themes of northern and southern folk songs?

3. How do the musical distinctions between northern and southern folk songs reflect the cultural practices and social norms of their respective regions?

4. How can the unique characteristics of northern and southern folk songs be utilized to enhance the preservation and transmission of local cultural traditions in contemporary society?

By analyzing existing literature from the past decade and seeking to answer these questions, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the diversity and regional characteristics of Chinese folk song culture, providing new perspectives and insights for researchers and cultural scholars in the field.

At the same time, it is crucial for a review at this level to not only summarize prior studies but also critically evaluate the explanations they propose. While geographical reasoning remains a useful heuristic for organizing variation in Chinese folk song traditions, this review adopts a critical, multi-factorial orientation. Geography is treated not as a deterministic cause but as a mediating variable that interacts with other factors such as linguistic prosody, ritual and religious practice (e.g., Lamaism), labor and life-cycle patterns, historical migration and contact, and contemporary policy and tourism dynamics. Many sources assert cause–effect links between landscape and musical form, yet such claims often rest on pattern-based inference rather than explicit tests of mechanism. Accordingly, this review not only summarizes reported correlations but also interrogates the strength of causal claims and highlights alternative or complementary explanations. This orientation structures the synthesis and frames the broader implications in the Analytical Synthesis section.

Methodology

This narrative review aims to identify and analyze relevant research on the relationship between Chinese folk songs and geographical representations. Google Scholar and CNKI serve as the primary search engines, complemented by advanced search tools and controlled vocabularies offered by the databases to ensure comprehensive coverage of pertinent studies. The search begins with predefined keywords such as “folk songs,”“Chinese folk songs,” and “Chinese folk music,” and is progressively refined with additional terms like “geographical representations,”“regional culture,”“dialect songs,” and “local music” throughout the iterative search process. This methodology ensures a thorough examination of the existing literature and a nuanced understanding of the connection between folk songs and geographical influences.

During the screening phase, literature selection is rigourously conducted according to predefined inclusion criteria. The process begins with a preliminary screening of abstracts to exclude studies that are unrelated to the research topic or lack peer review. The remaining literature is then subjected to a full-text review, with further screening based on the research objectives and inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria are as follows: (a) peer-reviewed studies, (b) research focused on exploring the relationship between Chinese folk songs and geographical representations, and (c) publications from the past decade (2014–2024). Exclusion criteria include: (a) studies centered on music in the field of psychology, (b) studies primarily analyzing music in the context of education, and (c) non-English or non-Chinese literature. After applying these criteria, a total of 65 articles were selected, consisting of 38 articles in English and 27 articles in Chinese. This systematic process ensures the selection of relevant, high-quality studies aligned with the research objectives.

During the full-text review process, literature directly relevant to the research topic is further screened for its alignment with the research objectives. Selected studies undergo thematic analysis to uncover the relationship between folk songs and geographical representations, as well as how these elements reflect regional culture. Key concepts, ideas, and findings from the literature are carefully examined to identify recurring themes that relate to the geographical and cultural influences on folk songs. Based on the analysis, reflective insights are drawn regarding how regional cultural differences and geographical factors have shaped the creation, transmission, and evolution of folk songs. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of geography in the development and preservation of regional music traditions. Additionally, to assess causal claims in the literature, we coded each reviewed study for the type of evidence it provided regarding drivers of musical variation. Where possible, we distinguished studies that tested mechanisms or traced processes longitudinally from those that offered cross-sectional or descriptive attributions. This procedure allowed us to weight claims about environmental causation against alternative explanatory variables in a transparent manner. Finally, the temporal scope of 2014 to 2024 was chosen deliberately. This decade coincides with three major developments: the rapid expansion of China’s intangible cultural heritage (ICH) programs and cultural tourism initiatives, which have significantly affected folk song practices; a methodological turn toward micro-regional and ethnic-minority studies, complicating the traditional north–south heuristic; and the growing availability of digitized archives and interdisciplinary approaches, which have reshaped how scholars document and analyze folk traditions. These factors make the past 10 years an especially critical period for reviewing and synthesizing the literature.

Analytical Synthesis

This analytical synthesis integrates both descriptive findings and critical discussion, thereby replacing the traditional separation of “results” and “discussion.” It is explicitly organized to correspond to the four research questions posed in the Introduction, ensuring that each subsection not only summarizes the literature but also evaluates its explanatory claims and implications. At the same time, the review highlights three interrelated themes that structure recent scholarship on Chinese folk songs (2014–2024). First, many studies continue to rely on the enduring but problematic north–south heuristic, documenting consistent contrasts while also noting boundary cases where its explanatory power is limited. Second, a growing body of research foregrounds micro-regional and ethnic-minority traditions, showing how linguistic prosody, ritual practice, labor rhythms, migration, and economic structures complicate simple environment–music linkages. Third, processes of heritagization—including tourism, festivalization, and policy-led cultural branding—have begun to reshape repertoires, raising questions about authenticity, continuity, and cultural identity. Taken together, these strands reveal both the enduring influence of geography and the contemporary forces that diversify, mediate, and sometimes standardize local practices.

The Enduring But Problematic North–South Binary

A large portion of the 2014 to 2024 literature continues to organize findings around the familiar north–south heuristic, which contrasts the soft, ornamented, and lyrically expressive styles of the South with the bold, rhythmically forceful, and straightforward repertoires of the North (X. Gao & Shi, 2023; Q. He, 2020; McLaren & Zhang, 2017; W. B. Sun, 2016; F. Tao, 2019; A. C. Wang, 2014; D. M. Wang, 2014). Classic case comparisons—such as divergent renditions of “Jasmine Flower”—show how regional performance practices reinforce this macro-regional contrast (N. N. Wang & Chen, 2016). Yet the very persistence of this binary also exposes its limitations. Studies of transition zones such as the Yangtze–Yellow River corridor and mixed-dialect regions (Shi & Nicolas, 2023; Xinran et al., 2016) demonstrate that the heuristic cannot fully account for intra-regional hybridity and cultural exchange, suggesting that while the binary remains heuristically useful, it risks oversimplifying the complex geographies of folk song practice. This subsection therefore addresses the first research question by identifying the distinctive musical characteristics of northern and southern folk songs, while also demonstrating the limits of the binary heuristic in fully accounting for observed diversity.

Musical Characteristics of North and South Folk Songs

Chinese folk songs are deeply shaped by regional cultural and environmental influences. Southern folk songs, characterized by soft, lyrical melodies and themes of hometown scenery and love (Q. He, 2020), contrast with the bold, straightforward styles of northern folk songs, which reflect the practical and hearty nature of northern life (X. Gao & Shi, 2023). This dichotomy highlights distinct aesthetic preferences: the south prioritizes melodic grace and emotional subtlety, while the north emphasizes rhythmic vigor and narrative directness.

The Musical Characteristic Differences Between Southern and Northern Folk Songs

Through a detailed review of the literature on Southern and Northern folk songs, this paper addresses the first research question: What are the distinct musical characteristic differences between Southern and Northern folk songs in China?

Southern folk songs, from regions such as East China, South China, and Southwest China, are characterized by soft, melodious tunes. The lyrics often reflect the warm climate, waterside scenery, and vibrant folk culture of the South. Northern folk songs, from regions like Northeast China, North China, and Northwest China, are marked by profound melodies, with lyrics often depicting the natural landscapes, customs, and historical traditions of the North. By examining the variations of the same song across different regions, the differences in musical styles between the North and South become clearer. For example, the folk song “Jasmine Flower,” with its enduring melody and profound content, has become a symbol of Eastern culture (L. Tao et al., 2023). In the South, “Jasmine Flower” is often sung at a moderate pace with a compact melody that progresses gradually and features recurring notes. Singers typically use local dialects, particularly the delicate and gentle Wu dialect (W. Jiang, 2016). In contrast, Northern versions of “Jasmine Flower” are more complex, sung at a moderate pace in a full voice, with melodies following a one-word-one-note pattern. The music spans a wide range and has a bold, resonant style. Endings often feature lingering cadences, emphasizing musical drama and lyricism. Northern singers typically employ obstructed and downward sliding vocal styles (Wang & Chen, 2016). These regional variations reflect local customs and characteristics, showcasing the diverse habits and personalities across China.

Musical Characteristics of Southern Folk Songs

The Jiangnan region, a key area in southern China, is a primary origin of southern folk songs. Known for their delicate and tender style, Jiangnan folk songs reflect the customs and cultural heritage of the water towns in the region (F. Tao, 2019). Fang (2014) explored the transmission, repertoire, and lyrics of Wu folk songs centered around Suzhou. These songs combine elements from opera tunes, folk melodies, Buddhist chants, and Jiangnan silk and bamboo music. They are marked by their unique vocalization, tonality, style, and sentiment, with characteristics such as oral transmission, variation, inheritability, and entertainment (McLaren & Zhang, 2017). The fertile land and pleasant climate of the Suzhou-Wuxi region have fostered a close relationship between Wu folk songs and rice and silk culture. Musically, Suzhou-Wuxi folk songs are divided into short songs and long narrative songs (Ding, 2019). Short songs, including mountain songs, seasonal tunes, and labor chants, are characterized by the graceful Wu dialect and melodious melodies, reflecting the distinctive charm of the Jiangnan water towns. These folk songs have nurtured Kunqu opera, Suzhou opera, and Suzhou pingtan, and have also benefited from the region’s opera traditions, enriching the development of local folk music (J. Yang et al., 2023).

Wang (2014) examined the customs and aesthetic preferences of Dangtu folk songs, analyzing their musical forms. This genre includes mountain songs, chants, yangge (rice-transplanting songs), folk tunes, and dance songs. The melodies of Dangtu folk songs, influenced by the picturesque Anhui water towns, share similarities with Jiangnan folk songs. These songs extensively use modifiers to enhance melodic variations and incorporate function words in the lyrics, producing smooth musical lines that reflect the “soft speech” quality of the local language (C. Zhang et al., 2016). The songs typically progress with graceful and concise melodies, often using the Yu mode, followed by the Zhi and Gong modes, with the Shang mode being the least common. This mode preference aligns with southern folk song traditions (Nan & Guan, 2024). Dangtu folk songs employ flexible symmetric forms, creating balanced and diversified structural layers, enhancing their free-spirited musical character and rich imagery. They are considered exemplary of the Anhui and Jiangnan folk music traditions.

Musical Characteristics of Northern Folk Songs

The northern region of Shaanxi is a major birthplace of Northern folk songs, known for their bold, sincere, and straightforward style. Wang (2014) identified xintianyou, xiaodiao, and laodonghaozi as the most representative genres in Shaanxi. Xintianyou, an outdoor mountain song, features improvised lyrics and melodies, reflecting an unrestrained and imaginative style. Its concise language, catchy melody, and free rhythm make it easy to remember and sing, with sections consisting of two lines (C. Gao & Karin, 2023). Xintianyou’s lyrics often include metaphors, repetition, and modifiers. It is divided into high-pitched and flat-pitched categories: high-pitched vocals have a wide range, free rhythm, and long, undulating melodies, while flat-pitched vocals are concise, brisk, and smooth, often expressing themes of love, similar to xiaodiao. Xiaodiao is sung during folk gatherings and entertainment occasions (E. Zhang & Choatchamrat, 2023). Laodonghaozi, folk songs sung to the rhythm of labour, are often wordless, using interjections like “ai,”“hai,” and “yo” (W. B. Sun, 2016).

Northeastern folk songs, including those of the Manchu people, are also prominent in Northern folk music. Z. D. Sun (2021) analyzed ancient Northeastern Manchu folk songs, noting their straightforward lyrics and narrow melodic range, often consisting of only three notes. This simplicity is a defining feature. In hexatonic and heptatonic Manchu songs, tonal shifts reflect emotional changes (Zheng, 2020). J. Sun and Xu (2020) examined the symbiotic relationship between Errenzhuan and Jiju. Errenzhuan, a unique artistic form combining singing, narration, and drama, is performed with singing, acting, dancing, narration, and musical accompaniment (Ma, 2019). Jiju, a local opera genre created from Errenzhuan, uses a comprehensive musical system dominated by the banqiang style, with liutiao and haidiao as the main vocal styles, supplemented by specialized tunes (H. Yang & Borisova, 2023). In liutiao singing, the male voice uses the yangge liuzi as the keynote, while the female voice uses hongliuzi, resulting in smooth melodic variations and the creation of many outstanding singing styles (Zhuang, 2014).

Beyond Landscape: Social, Linguistic, and Economic Determinants

The limitations of the north–south binary become clearer when scholars turn to micro-regional and ethnic-minority repertoires. This strand of literature shows that local histories, linguistic prosody, labour patterns, and ritual practices often shape musical form as strongly as—if not more than—broad environmental contrasts. Studies of Qiang polyphonic singing, Buyi “gatherings for song-making,” Mongolian long songs, Dan family “Saltwater Songs,” and Miao narrative epics highlight musical heterogeneity in scales, ornamentation, and social function that cannot be captured by landscape-based explanations alone. Together, these cases demonstrate that social and cultural determinants complicate the neat north–south divide, pushing analysis toward a more plural and multi-causal understanding of Chinese folk song traditions. This subsection relates to the second and third research questions by showing how linguistic prosody, ritual practice, labour rhythms, migration, and economic structures intersect with geography in shaping the melodic, lyrical, and functional dimensions of folk song traditions.

Environmental Accounts: Geography and Ecology Shaping Song

The Influence of Geographic Factors on Southern and Northern Folk Songs

Geographic factors play a significant role in shaping the characteristics of Southern and Northern folk songs. Southern regions, characterized by mountains, waterways, and a humid climate, often feature soft, delicate melodies, such as those heard in the Jiangnan water towns. In contrast, Northern regions, with their plains, grasslands, and dry climate, tend to produce more bold and straightforward songs, as seen in the robust folk music of Shaanbei (Lau, 2015). These environmental differences influence the musical styles and emotional expressions of both regions.

Geography also impacts the lyrical content of folk songs. Southern folk songs frequently focus on hometown scenery and love stories, reflecting the Southern people’s deep affection for their homeland. Northern folk songs, on the other hand, often address labour hardships, life struggles, and a profound love for the motherland, with lyrics that are plain and direct. These variations reflect regional disparities in history, culture, and social landscape (B. Sun & Maneewattana, 2024).

Additionally, geographic factors shape the inheritance and development of folk songs. Southern folk songs are often passed down within families or villages, while Northern folk songs are transmitted through community choruses or collective performances. These transmission methods reflect the different traditions and customs shaped by the geographical environments and social norms of the two regions (B. Chen, 2024).

The Influence of Southern Geographic Environment on Folk Songs

The Yangtze River, a vital river in Southern China, has significantly influenced Southern folk songs. The natural scenery and geography of the Yangtze River basin often serve as themes for folk song creation (F. Tao, 2019). The majestic scenery and unpredictable waters have inspired many folk songwriters to express emotions and praise their homeland (Lin & Liu, 2021).

Y. H. Liu (2014) highlighted the inheritance of Su-style mountain songs in the Taihu Lake area, located at the heart of the Yangtze River Delta. This area, with its crisscrossing rivers and streams, exhibits features typical of the Jiangnan region. The Su-style mountain songs from this region are gentle and flowing, reflecting the landscape’s beauty and harmony.

W. Xiang and Cai (2019) explored intangible cultural heritage projects across the Yangtze River basin, noting that the region contains a wide variety of folk song genres. These include Tibetan folk songs, Dong ethnic group’s epic songs, and Hani ethnic group’s polyphonic songs, distributed across various music culture regions in the basin. The diversity of folk songs in the Yangtze River basin reflects the rich cultural environment of the area.

The Influence of Northern Geographic Environment on Folk Songs

The Yellow River, a vital river in Northern China, has profoundly influenced Northern folk songs. The geographical environment of the Yellow River basin, particularly the Loess Plateau with its undulating terrain and barren land, has shaped songs that often reflect the harsh conditions and the indomitable spirit of the people living there (Z. Zhang et al., 2022). Yellow River folk songs typically depict the desolate landscape and the surging river, highlighting the struggles of life along its banks (W. Zhang et al., 2021).

M. J. Zhang (2023) documented folk songs in the Yellow River basin, noting that regional culture in this area is diverse, enriching Yellow River culture. In eastern Qinghai, folk songs are often sung in an antiphonal style, with subtle changes in melody accompanying the lyrics, reflecting the flat plains and arid climate (Shi & Nicolas, 2023).

Mongolian long songs, originating from the grassland culture, also showcase the influence of geography. These songs lack fixed rhythms and beats, with free rhythm and syncopation, reflecting the pastoral life of the Mongolian people (Tsetsentsolmon, 2015). In northern Shaanxi, the “Xintianyou” songs, sung on steep slopes and winding paths, represent the musical and cultural spirit of the Loess Plateau.

Han and Hu (2024) explored the influence of Northeast China’s geography on its folk songs. The vast, sparsely populated land and harsh weather conditions have given Northeast folk songs a broad and bold artistic character. The region’s semi-closed environment and dispersed settlement of ethnic groups have shaped the sincere, passionate tone of these songs. Activities such as fishing, hunting, and animal husbandry have also inspired their creation.

Tian (2014) analyzed Tibetan folk music, noting that the geography of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau influences the distinct regional characteristics of Tibetan music. The U-Tsang, Kham, and Amdo dialect areas each have different landscapes, from snow-capped peaks to high-altitude grasslands, and these environments shape the various forms of folk music found in these regions (C. Yang, 2021).

Geographic Influence on Regional Characteristics in Northern and Southern Folk Songs

By examining relevant literature on Chinese folk songs and geographical environments, the second research question of this paper, namely how do geographical factors shape the regional characteristics of northern and southern folk songs, can be answered. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers serve as geographical starting points for the creation of Southern and Northern folk songs, respectively, shaping the regional characteristics of Southern and Northern folk songs through reflections and representations of surrounding geographical environments, climatic characteristics, and historical cultures, resulting in significant differences and characteristics in musical styles, lyrical content, and expressive forms (Tian et al., 2023).

The Yangtze River basin features diverse geographical environments, including mountains, rivers, and wetlands, which become important themes and backgrounds for Southern folk song creation. Southern folk songs often depict the scenery and emotions of the Jiangnan water town, praising the beauty of the river and the goodness of life. The humid climate and rich ecological environment in the Yangtze River basin directly influence the musical style of Southern folk songs, which often feature gentle and lyrical melodies, reflecting the local people’s awe and gratitude toward nature. In contrast, the geographical environment of the Yellow River basin is mostly characterized by the Loess Plateau, with undulating terrain and barren land, directly influencing the creation of folk songs in the Yellow River basin. Northern folk songs often focus on the themes of hard work and difficult life, praising the resilience and optimism of the people in the face of hardship. The dry climate of the Yellow River basin is also reflected in the musical style of Northern folk songs, which often feature bold and vigorous melodies, reflecting the heroic spirit and resilience of the Northern people.

In the long history of music art in China, many deeply influential folk tunes have been passed down through the ages, among which “Meng Jiangnv Melody” is one of the most representative (McConaghy, 2020). After spreading to both the North and the South, due to differences in climate, environment, and lifestyle, and influenced by local languages and folk music styles, differences in music styles have also emerged while retaining the basic characteristics of the original melody (Wang & Chen, 2016). The vast and ancient scenery in the northern region, dominated by plains, with a cold and dry climate and scarce rainfall, has led to the bold and unrestrained style of Northern folk songs, which are broad and unobstructed. In terms of melody progression, Northern folk songs often feature leaps, frequently using intervals of a fifth or sixth, with large fluctuations in melody, a wide range of pitches, and steep melodic lines (H. Liu et al., 2022). In performance, Northern folk songs are bold and straightforward, with more words and fewer melodies, fast and compact in tempo, sung with crisp and powerful articulation, emphasizing the power of the voice, with a greater emphasis on genuine vocal components, in line with the enthusiastic and unrestrained character of the Northern people. In contrast, the southern region is located in hilly terrain, with a mild and humid climate, fertile land, picturesque scenery, dense population, developed economy, and profound cultural history. Southern folk songs appear rounder and smoother compared to those of the North. In terms of melody progression, Southern folk songs mainly feature gradual melodic progressions, with fewer leaps, smaller fluctuations in melody, a narrower range of pitches, and mostly soft major and minor thirds, resembling continuous waves. In terms of musical structure, Southern folk songs often follow a four-sentence structure of introduction, development, turn, and conclusion, with each sentence being a coherent and independent long phrase (X. Fu, 2020). In vocal ornamentation, Southern folk songs tend to be more tender and delicate, mainly conveying a sense of continuity, even in breaks, there is a sense of continuous airflow. In performance, Southern folk songs have fewer words per sentence, emphasizing soft and gentle vocalization, with more falsetto elements, in line with the gentle and refined character of the Southern people (Q. Li et al., 2022).

Alternative Mechanisms: Linguistic, Ritual, Labour, Migration

Case Studies of Ethnic-Minority and Micro-Regional Repertoires

Y. Liu (2014) focused on the polyphonic folk songs of the Qiang ethnic group in Aba Prefecture, Sichuan. These songs are known for their diverse themes, lively lyrics, and rich content, typically following a two-part structure. The singing process often slows down to a moderate pace, incorporating neutral tones and “vibrato” during performance (J. Xiang et al., 2023). Key types include mountain songs, drinking songs, labour songs, and dance songs. The songs feature unison or overlapping singing, with both men and women participating in chorus-style duets. “Male choruses” are common at banquets or ancestral worship ceremonies, while “female choruses” are typical at weddings or collective activities of women in the Qiang community.

Mongolian folk songs from Inner Mongolia are an essential part of Northern folk music. They often take the form of grassland ballads and horse-head fiddle tunes, depicting the grassland scenery and nomadic life. Yan and Jin (2016) defined Khorchin folk songs as originating from southeastern Inner Mongolia, characterised by grandeur and beauty. These songs are narrative, with a grand structure and rich content, sometimes resembling epics or operas (D’evelyn & Post, 2022). Khorchin folk songs feature melodic leaps of seven, eight, or more degrees, with uncertain positions within the musical phrases of exposition, development, transition, and recapitulation (D’Evelyn, 2018).

Guo (2023) examined the development of “waterborne folk songs” in the South China Sea, also known as “Saltwater Songs” or “Dan Family Tunes.” These songs are deeply rooted in the Dan family’s way of life, which revolves around the ocean, boats, and fishing. They reflect the hardships, love stories, and festive customs of the Dan family, who have used these songs for centuries to express emotions and document their lives. These songs serve as a cultural carrier for the Dan family, preserving their unique cultural heritage.

Expounding from a folkloric perspective, Yue (2014) argued that the integration of traditional folklore with folk music serves as an artistic bridge leading from folklore to folk music, effectively promoting the inheritance and development of folk music. Attention should shift from a linear description of folk music toward a re-creative focus on its protection and development. The cultural relics surrounding the ancient city of Huangsiqiao, known as the “Miao Territory Wall,” embodying the cultural heritage of Western Hunan, have facilitated the transmission of four ancient mythical narrative poems of the Miao people: “Bandong Chen,”“Cui Niao,”“Tianling Xiangguan,” and “Liu Yue Liu.” The cultural relics of Huangsiqiao, the historical transmission of ancient songs, the customs of surrounding ethnic groups, the dance culture of “Jumping Flowers and Moon,” and the picturesque ecological culture have given birth to the folk music culture of the Miao people, promoting the intrinsic value of Miao cultural ecological protection and driving the prosperity of intangible cultural heritage of ethnic groups (Xia & Karin, 2022). The author suggests that in the inheritance and protection of folk music, emphasis should be placed on the core role of inheritors, channels for active protection and inheritance should be improved, and various protection measures should be implemented to sustain cultural development.

Regional Cultural Embedding of Folk Songs

Northern and Southern folk songs are rich cultural treasures that reflect the diversity of regional cultures in China. Analyzing them through the lens of regional cultural differences highlights their role in preserving and transmitting local traditions and cultural identity.

H. Wang and Yu (2017) analyzed the folk songs of Northern Shaanxi, emphasizing their role as carriers of local folk culture. These songs reflect the customs and activities of the region, including the clothing culture of Shaanxi men who, even today, wear traditional attire like white sheep belly handkerchiefs and leather jackets. These cultural elements are an expression of the enduring spirit of Northern Shaanxi’s people, symbolizing their connection to the land.

Yu and Yu (2016) explored the short folk songs of the Mongolian people in eastern Inner Mongolia. These songs depict the cultural traditions and customs of the Mongolian people, reflecting their pursuit of truth, goodness, and beauty. The region’s religious culture, particularly Lamaism, has subtly influenced the development of Mongolian folk songs, which play an important role in cultural ceremonies such as traditional weddings. These songs embody aspects of Mongolian life, including music, dance, and cultural customs (X. Jiang, 2018).

The differences between Northern and Southern folk songs indeed reflect the cultural disparities across various regions of China. Geographical factors such as the Southern mountains and humid climate, contrasted with the Northern plains and dry climate, directly influence the musical styles and lyrical content of the songs. Southern folk songs tend to feature gentle, lyrical melodies and express longing for picturesque landscapes and personal emotions like love and friendship (S. Wu & Liu, 2015). In contrast, Northern folk songs are bolder and more straightforward, focusing on aspirations for the homeland and social responsibilities (Hao & Li, 2015).

The cultural traditions of each region are also embedded in their folk songs. Southern folk songs reflect the cultural features of areas like Jiangnan water towns and Minnan culture, while Northern folk songs express the sentiments and history of the Loess Plateau and grasslands (Chi, 2023). Furthermore, the lifestyles and social customs of the North and South influence the themes of their folk songs. Southern folk songs often emphasize familial bonds, pastoral life, and personal relationships, while Northern folk songs highlight social duty, ethnic identity, and national pride (An, 2015). Northern and Southern folk songs are more than just musical expressions; they are cultural artifacts that reflect the rich diversity and historical depth of China’s regional cultures. These songs contribute to the preservation and inheritance of local traditions, making them vital components of China’s cultural heritage.

Synthesis: Moving Beyond Environmental Determinism

While many studies continue to attribute musical differences primarily to environmental factors such as climate, topography, and ecology, a closer reading of the literature suggests that such explanations are often partial and sometimes overstated. Several scholars instead highlight the role of linguistic prosody (e.g., Wu dialect tonal patterns shaping melodic contour), ritual and religious practices (e.g., Lamaism influencing Mongolian and Tibetan repertoires), labour rhythms, historical migration, and state-led cultural policy. Importantly, only a minority of works attempt to test environmental causation against these alternative variables; most simply infer correlations from geographic patterns. By juxtaposing these strands of evidence, this review shows that environmental determinism remains a pervasive but insufficient explanatory trope, one that is best understood in relation to complementary cultural, historical, and political dynamics.

Folk Songs as Intangible Heritage: Preservation vs. Transformation

Beyond environmental and social determinants, a growing strand of scholarship interrogates how folk songs are reshaped through heritage processes. This body of work highlights both opportunities for safeguarding and risks of commodification, as repertoires are reframed for external audiences and local communities alike. This subsection addresses the fourth research question by examining how folk songs contribute to cultural preservation and transmission, while also highlighting the risks of standardization and commodification introduced by heritage and tourism policies.

Another set of studies interrogates how heritage processes—particularly tourism, festivalization, and state-led cultural policy—reshape local repertoires. These works show how Buyi song gatherings are transformed into staged festivals, how Miao folk traditions are reinterpreted through heritage projects, and how government-supported cultural branding contributes both to preservation and to commodification. Scholars emphasize that while heritage policies can protect vulnerable traditions, they may also standardize or homogenize practices, altering their social meanings.

Luo (2016) analyzed the development and evolution of Buyi folk songs, observing four stages of societal function evolution from “entertainment for gods” and “pleasing gods” to “song selection for marriage” and finally to “folk song culture festivals.” The transition in singing language manifests a development path of “inheritance—evolution—variation,” indicating traces of social and cultural changes. The ancient folk custom of “gatherings for song-making” among the Buyi initially served the functions of “entertainment for gods” and “pleasing gods.” This ancient custom originated in primitive society, wrapped within folk activities beneath primitive religious beliefs. As societal culture evolved, individual consciousness strengthened, and the original sacrificial activity of “gatherings for song-making” evolved into a cultural activity primarily involving young men and women singing to each other. As the institution of marriage developed into a system of marital exchange, the song gatherings and festivals of “gatherings for song-making” provided a venue for young men and women to select partners through singing. With the deepening of China’s reform and opening-up, rapid economic development, and especially the rise of tourism, ethnic culture has become an important resource for promoting economic development. The song gathering, as one of the important symbolic representations of Buyi traditional culture, is a national cultural brand vigorously supported and promoted by the government. The author also points out the negative aspects of the current transformation of Buyi folk songs, namely, the loss of the personality and characteristics inherent in the Buyi ethnic language after the sinicization of Buyi folk songs. Beyond the Buyi case, other ethnic repertoires have undergone similar heritage-driven transformations. Studies of Miao folk songs note that once incorporated into intangible cultural heritage programs, they are frequently recontextualized through large-scale festivals or tourism performances, where ritual or domestic functions are displaced by choreographed spectacles (Xia & Karin, 2022). These examples demonstrate that while heritage initiatives safeguard minority repertoires, they also accelerate processes of festivalization, marketization, and standardization, raising questions about the authenticity and lived meanings of folk performance.

While heritage initiatives often reshape repertoires for external audiences, another strand of scholarship emphasizes how communities themselves preserve, adapt, and transmit folk songs as living cultural practices. In the inheritance and development of local cultural traditions, North and South folk songs play a crucial role, being important carriers of regional culture, historical sentiments, and ethnic spirit. They inject new vitality and charm into local cultural traditions through generations of transmission and continuous development. Scholars highlight that folk songs contribute to the inheritance and development of local cultural traditions in multiple ways. Firstly, it is necessary to excavate and protect traditional folk song resources. Strengthening the excavation and protection of traditional folk song resources, especially those on the brink of extinction, is imperative. By collecting, organizing, recording, and preserving folk songs, the authenticity of traditional folk songs can be ensured, providing a reliable material foundation for future generations to inherit (Zhong & Inkhong, 2022). Secondly, in the process of inheriting local cultural traditions, emphasis should be placed on the combination of tradition and innovation. Even traditional folk songs can be innovated through modern music arrangement, performance forms, etc., to make them more contemporary and appealing, better integrating into contemporary social life (B. Chen, 2024). Lastly, in the process of inheriting and developing local folk songs, it is crucial to promote cultural confidence and foster a correct sense of cultural pride and confidence. It is essential to recognize that local folk songs, as an important part of Chinese cultural tradition, possess unique artistic charm and historical value, necessitating more people to understand and value them (Q. Fu, 2022).

In summary, North and South folk songs play a crucial role in inheriting and developing local cultural traditions. They not only record local history and customs but also convey the spirit and values of ethnic culture. Through continuous inheritance and innovation, North and South folk songs will continue to inject new vitality and momentum into the inheritance and development of local cultural traditions.

Evidence, Methods, and Future Directions

The preceding synthesis highlights how Chinese folk song scholarship has approached questions of geography, culture, and heritage. In this final section, we shift focus from describing findings to reflecting on the types of evidence employed, the methodological choices underpinning them, and the conceptual implications for future research. This subsection synthesizes insights across all four research questions by evaluating the evidentiary strength of existing studies and proposing methodological and conceptual directions for advancing research in music geography and heritage studies.

A first point concerns the uneven weight of explanatory claims. Many studies continue to rely on environmental explanations, linking landscapes with melodic or stylistic tendencies. These accounts are intuitively appealing but often rest on pattern-based inference: ecological conditions and musical features are described as co-varying, without specification of causal pathways. By contrast, stronger contributions trace alternative or complementary mechanisms—such as the role of linguistic prosody, ritual and religious practice, labour organization, historic migration, or state-led interventions—that may generate the same musical patterns once attributed solely to the environment. Processes of heritagization and marketization further complicate causal narratives, as they reshape contemporary repertoires in ways that reflect institutional priorities as much as long-term adaptation. These contrasts suggest that environmental determinism, while heuristically useful, is insufficient as a stand-alone explanation.

Methodologically, the reviewed literature demonstrates the need for more robust strategies to establish causality. Comparative designs that hold language or ritual practice constant while varying environmental exposure, longitudinal ethnographies that document change before and after policy or tourism interventions, and acoustic or score-based analyses that quantify functional demands (such as projection distance or pitch emphasis) can all sharpen explanatory precision. Mixed-methods approaches that integrate musicological analysis with political-economic and ethnographic context are particularly promising. Moreover, community-centered documentation is essential: explanations of “why a song sounds a certain way” should be grounded in emic accounts rather than external teleologies.

Conceptually, we recommend treating geography not as a determining force but as a mediating variable. Landscapes structure opportunities and constraints—through acoustic affordances, subsistence patterns, or mobility routes—but the translation into musical form is mediated by language, ritual, socio-economic organization, and institutional power. Framing geography as one among several interacting factors preserves its heuristic value while avoiding the reductionism of single-cause models.

Looking forward, future research should prioritize synthesis across these dimensions. While the north–south dichotomy remains a useful shorthand for describing broad stylistic variation, its limits are evident: micro-regional and minority traditions reveal a more fragmented geography of sound, and heritage interventions highlight the agency of contemporary institutions. Interdisciplinary approaches that combine musicology, anthropology, and geography, together with participatory and longitudinal fieldwork, are needed to capture the evolving dynamics of folk song practices. At the same time, attention to preservation and innovation must continue: safeguarding threatened repertoires, while encouraging adaptive creativity, can ensure that folk songs remain both living cultural practices and valuable resources for cultural confidence in contemporary China.

Conclusion

In the process of researching Chinese folk songs, we delved into crucial issues concerning the music characteristics, geographical influences, cultural disparities, and inheritance and development of North and South folk songs. Through a review of literature on Chinese folk songs from 2014 to 2024, the following conclusions were drawn.

First, the study emphasizes the profound differences in musical characteristics between southern and northern folk songs. Influenced by the warm and humid climate and the culture of water towns, southern folk songs are known for their soft tunes, beautiful melodies and delicate expression of emotions. In contrast, northern folk songs are influenced by the cold and vast landscape, with bold and loud melodies and a more direct and powerful style. Secondly, geographical factors such as the Yangtze River and the Yellow River played a crucial role in the formation of musical traditions in these regions. Southern folk songs reflect the warm climate and vibrant cultural life of the south, while northern folk songs reflect the vastness and historical heritage of the northern region. Third, this study reaffirms the rich cultural connotations embedded in the folk songs of the north and south, demonstrating how regional music reflects the different cultural landscapes of different parts of China. These variations align with existing research and emphasize folk songs as dynamic representations of cultural diversity. Lastly, the study stresses the importance of preserving and transmitting these folk traditions. It advocates for a balance between honoring traditional elements and embracing innovation, ensuring that folk songs remain relevant in contemporary society. The research enriches our understanding of how regional culture shapes musical expression, providing a deeper appreciation of Chinese traditional folk songs and their geographical contexts. In addition to these conclusions, our review stresses that while geography remains a vital lens, explanations of musical variation must also integrate linguistic, ritual, migratory, and policy factors. Only by considering these interacting influences can scholars produce richer and more grounded accounts of how folk song forms emerge, evolve, and acquire new meanings.

This study not only supports existing theories on the geographical influences on folk song creation but also provides new evidence for the fields of music geography and folk song research. The findings offer valuable insights for cultural policy, advocating for the careful integration of tradition with innovation. While this study demonstrates the continued usefulness of the north–south dichotomy in understanding regional musical variation, micro-regional differences and minority traditions reveal its limitations, highlighting the complexity and diversity of Chinese folk music. Building on these insights, future research could examine folk songs from additional regions or engage in cross-cultural comparisons to explore the global impact of geography and culture on musical traditions. Interdisciplinary approaches combining musicology, anthropology, and geography would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how folk songs shape cultural identity and heritage. Furthermore, investigating the role of digital media and participatory community practices could offer fresh perspectives on how technology and contemporary social dynamics influence the preservation, transmission, and evolution of traditional music.