Abstract
This study examines the identity construction of graduate teaching volunteers in China’s rural education context, focusing on the Graduate Teaching Volunteer Program in Western China. Using Dugas’s Identity Triangle Model and Wenger’s Communities of Practice theory as integrated frameworks, the research investigates how volunteers navigate professional identity in unfamiliar and under-resourced schools. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve volunteers serving in Yunnan, Guizhou, and Shanxi provinces. Findings reveal that identity development is a dynamic process shaped by internal beliefs, social interactions, and daily pedagogical practices. While volunteers begin with strong moral motivation and civic ideals, they often encounter role ambiguity, limited institutional support, and cultural dissonance. Over time, many transition from peripheral actors to situated practitioners through adaptive strategies and relational engagement. To address these challenges, the study introduces a University–District–School (U-D-S) collaboration framework—not as a theoretical lens, but as a practical mechanism for institutional support. The model emphasizes the complementary roles of universities (pre-service preparation), local governments (policy assurance), and host schools (professional and emotional integration) in fostering identity development. By capturing the emotional tensions and transformative trajectories of volunteers, this study highlights both the challenges and potential transcendence embedded in rural teaching experiences. It contributes to global discussions on novice teacher identity, educational equity in rural areas, and volunteer service by offering theoretical insights and actionable recommendations for policy and practice.
Keywords
Introduction
Educational inequality between urban and rural China has become a persistent concern for policymakers and researchers over recent decades (Hao, 2021). Despite ongoing efforts to improve rural education, many remote regions in western China continue to face shortages of qualified teachers and limited access to educational resources (Sun, 2023). Structural factors including perceived low occupational status, excessive workload pressure, and imbalanced salary compensation trigger negative social comparisons among teaching professionals, which substantially erodes early-career teachers’ commitment to long-term service in rural western China (Miao & Li, 2024).In response, national and local authorities have launched initiatives such as the Chinese Young Volunteers Graduate Teaching Program, which has mobilized over 18,000 volunteers to serve in more than 700 primary and secondary schools across 20 provinces (China Youth Daily, 2019).These volunteers have already become an important supplementary force in the development of rural education in Western China (Zhang, 2015).
While previous studies have examined the motivations (Luo, 2019), Challenges and deficiencies (Li & Liu, 2020), and Contributions of teaching volunteers (Wan & Zhang, 2018), there remains limited understanding of how these individuals construct and negotiate their professional identities during service. In the multicultural and often unfamiliar school environments of western China, identity development is not a straightforward transition from peripheral participation to full membership within communities of practice. Instead, volunteer teachers often oscillate between roles such as “dedicated contributor” and “marginal outsider,” influenced by personal beliefs, interactions with host schools, and institutional policies from both universities and local governments.
This study focuses on the complex identity trajectories of volunteer teachers, analyzing the emotional dilemmas they face and how institutional structures shape their identity development. It seeks to bridge theoretical insights with practical strategies by responding to the following research questions:
(1) How do teaching volunteers construct and position their identities during rural service?
(2) How can universities, local governments, and recipient schools collaboratively support the identity development of teaching volunteers?
Literature Review
Teacher Identity: A Dynamic and Contextual Process
Teacher identity is widely acknowledged as a dynamic, multifaceted, and context-dependent construct. Beijaard et al. (2004) emphasized that teacher identity evolves through continuous interaction between personal experiences and professional contexts. Building upon this, Dugas (2021) proposed the Identity Triangle model, which conceptualizes teacher identity through the interplay of three domains: psychological (life narrative), relational (others’ recognition), and behavioral (enacted roles). This model underscores that identity formation is an ongoing process of negotiating coherence among these domains, influenced by internal self-perception and external positioning. Extending this framework, Graus, de Vries, and van de Ven (2022) highlighted that teacher identity learning involves integrating practical experiences, theoretical knowledge, personal self, and professional self, mediated by sense-making, ownership, and agency. Recent systematic reviews further confirm that teacher identity research increasingly highlights its relational and institutional dimensions. Rushton et al. (2023) synthesized over 400 studies and noted that identity work is inseparable from broader systemic forces, including educational policy and organizational cultures. In the Chinese context, Li (2022) examined the identity narratives of two English teachers and demonstrated how professional identities are shaped by conflicting discourses, temporal positioning, and the relational expectations of others. Her work reveals how teachers constantly navigate tensions between innovation and tradition, autonomy and institutional regulation—highlighting the inherently negotiated nature of identity work. Similarly, Ai et al. (2022) examined pre-service teachers’ experiences in rural schools, revealing how engagement with unfamiliar socio-cultural environments reshaped their professional identities through participation in communities of practice. Similarly, Wang and Mason (2023) applied the Identity Triangle model to analyze a non-native Chinese language teacher’s identity construction in a new cultural context, demonstrating how personal motivations, behavioral changes, and relational dynamics collectively influence identity formation. Collectively, these studies illustrate that teacher identity is a fluid and multifaceted process, deeply embedded in the contexts in which teachers learn and practice.
Identity Challenges in Volunteer Teaching
Volunteer teaching in rural contexts is often positioned as a transformative act of service and educational equity. Across different cultural and national settings, volunteer teachers—particularly university students serving in under-resourced areas—frequently encounter identity-related dilemmas that challenge their professional development and teaching effectiveness. In rural China, Liu and Cui (2020) found that many student volunteers struggle with unclear role positioning, often labeled by school staff and students as “temporary helpers” or “outsiders.” This ambiguity undermines their professional identity and sense of belonging, ultimately diminishing their teaching commitment. However, Caspari-Gnann and Sevian (2022) emphasized that professional dilemmas are not simply obstacles but can act as productive triggers for teacher identity development. From this perspective, volunteer teaching—fraught with tensions between ideals and practice—can serve as a critical space for reflection and identity negotiation. The uncertainty surrounding one’s role, the mismatch between expectations and reality, and the need to navigate unfamiliar cultural landscapes all constitute dilemmas that stimulate growth, rather than merely cause disillusionment.
Empirical research supports this view. Zhang and Liu (2022) examined pre-service teachers in a 1-year volunteer program in western China and found that participants often oscillated between their identities as urban-educated outsiders and the local expectations placed on them as full-fledged teachers. Similarly, Oesterle et al. (2004) highlighted the fragility of young adults’ volunteer identities, shaped by prior socialization and the availability of supportive institutional scaffolds.
Internationally, Rehberg (2005) described young volunteers as “altruistic individualists,” torn between the desire to serve and the pursuit of personal growth. Kewes and Munsch (2019) further noted that identity is dynamic, shifting between engagement and disengagement depending on emotional and organizational conditions. In this light, emotional labor becomes central to identity construction. Afreen and Norton (2024) found that volunteers with a strong sense of investment in the community manage identity stress more effectively, even in low-support environments.
In the Chinese context, institutional fragmentation exacerbates identity confusion. While some universities provide limited pre-service preparation, Liu and Cui (2020) reported that nearly half of student volunteers received no systematic training, making it difficult to assume a coherent teacher identity. Zheng (2012) described similar tensions among volunteer Chinese teachers in France, who struggled between acting as cultural ambassadors and unprepared educators. These unresolved dilemmas often lead to emotional fatigue and self-doubt.
Grube and Piliavin (2000) showed that strong role identity and positive institutional experience improve volunteer performance, while weak support structures increase the likelihood of role exit. When programs lack coherence—as is often the case with loosely managed or short-term rural placements—volunteers are more prone to disengagement (Studer & von Schnurbein, 2013). On a more positive note, Ou et al. (2023) demonstrated that when role identity is successfully consolidated through volunteering, it can enhance long-term career aspirations.
In conclusion, the identity dilemmas encountered in volunteer teaching represent not merely obstacles, but pivotal experiences that foster critical self-reflection, emotional resilience, and professional development. This dialectical process of “deconstruction followed by reconstruction” constitutes a defining characteristic of teacher identity formation. However, realizing this transformative potential requires more than intrinsic motivation; it necessitates a comprehensive support system encompassing structural scaffolding, cultural mediation, and institutional coordination to facilitate volunteers’ navigation through ambiguity and ultimately strengthen their professional identities.
Theoretical Perspectives and Practical Framework
Theoretical Lenses for Understanding Teacher Identity: The Identity Triangle and Communities of Practice
Understanding how volunteer teachers construct their professional identities requires a conceptual framework that accounts for both personal agency and the broader social context. Recent scholarship has increasingly emphasized that teacher identity is not a fixed set of psychological traits but a dynamic process of negotiation among personal narratives, social recognition, and enacted practices—situated within specific communities and shaped through participation (Graus, van de Broek, Hennissen, et al., 2022; Reeves, 2018).
Volunteer teachers participating in the Graduate Teaching Support Program often experience shifting identities as they transition between roles such as student, teacher, community member, and outsider. Their professional identity is not pre-defined but is continually shaped and reshaped through interactions with institutional expectations, peer recognition, and lived teaching experiences in rural schools. To capture this complexity, two complementary frameworks are particularly instructive: Dugas’s (2021) Identity Triangle model and Wenger’s (1998) theory of Communities of Practice.
Dugas (2021) proposes that teacher identity emerges from the continuous interaction among three interdependent domains: the psychological domain (self-concept and life story), the relational domain (recognition by others), and the behavioral domain (teaching practices and role enactment). Rather than assuming coherence across these domains, the model emphasizes that such coherence must be actively negotiated—especially in contexts where personal values may conflict with institutional expectations. Building on this model, Wang and Mason (2023) applied the Identity Triangle to examine the evolving identity of a novice, non-native Mandarin teacher. Their case illustrates how identity is co-constructed through inner motivation, interpersonal feedback, and behavioral adjustments in unfamiliar teaching settings.
While the Identity Triangle highlights the intrapersonal and interpersonal processes of identity formation, Wenger’s (1998) theory complements this by focusing on the situated and communal aspects of identity. From this perspective, identity is viewed as a learning trajectory within a community of practice, where individuals move from peripheral participation toward full membership through shared activities, mutual engagement, and recognition. For volunteer teachers—often entering rural schools as temporary and marginal actors—this transition depends not only on individual effort but also on the extent to which the host communities provide access to legitimate participation. This interpretation aligns with the broader collaborative framework explored in this study, namely the interaction among universities, local governments (districts), and host schools (U-D-S). Each of these institutions functions as a potential community of practice whose support—or lack thereof—critically shapes the identity trajectories of volunteers.
The U-D-S Collaboration Model as a Practical Framework for Policy Recommendations
Institutional structures significantly influence volunteer teacher identity development. A key framework considered here is the University–District–School (U-D-S) partnership model, originally developed in Western educational reforms (Borthwick et al., 2003). The U-D-S model emphasizes coordinated efforts among universities (teacher preparation), districts (policy and oversight), and schools (practical teaching environments) to support novice teachers (Petti & Hooker, 2015). The U-D-S model in this study is not a theoretical perspective but a practical framework derived from Western educational reform experiences. It aims to address identity issues among postgraduate volunteer teachers identified in the research. Rather than serving as an explanatory variable, it is a strategy distilled from interview data and observation records, highlighting the supportive roles and collaborative mechanisms among universities, local governments, and recipient schools in constructing volunteer teacher identities.
Effective partnerships provide clear role definitions, continuous mentoring, and professional recognition, thereby enhancing identity formation (Deng & Liu, 2018; Li & Zhang, 2013). However, when U-D-S collaborations are weak—such as when universities provide inadequate preparation, districts offer little support, or schools marginalize volunteers—identity struggles intensify (Hamel & Ryken, 2010). In the Chinese context, the University–District–School (U-D-S) partnership model in the graduate volunteer teaching program exhibits distinctive institutional characteristics. Firstly, the management of volunteer teachers varies significantly across regions. In some areas, receiving schools and local governments provide minimal oversight, leading to ambiguous role definitions and expectations. Conversely, other institutions enforce stringent management, requiring volunteers to undertake additional administrative duties beyond their teaching responsibilities, thereby increasing their workload and complicating their professional identity formation. Secondly, the program’s 1-year service cycle, encapsulated by the slogan “Use 1 year to do something unforgettable,” imposes a compressed timeframe for volunteers to adapt and establish their professional identities. Lastly, there exists an asymmetry in resource flow: universities supply human capital by dispatching volunteers but often lack effective feedback mechanisms with receiving schools, potentially resulting in mismatches between preparation and on-site needs. Building upon the U-D-S framework, this study will present policy recommendations in the Discussion section aimed at enhancing volunteer teachers’ identity development. These recommendations will be structured from the perspectives of universities, local governments, and recipient schools, addressing the unique roles each institution plays in supporting volunteer teachers.
These theoretical and analytical frameworks together form the foundation for our research design, data analysis, and subsequent policy recommendations. The following section outlines the methodology employed to examine how graduate volunteer teachers construct their professional identities within the institutional and relational environments described above.
Research Design and Methodology
Research Design
This study employed purposeful sampling to recruit twelve participants (two cohorts of six each) from the Postgraduate Volunteer Teaching Program at University S. All participants completed a 1-year rural teaching assignment in Western China before returning to their graduate studies the following academic year (Table 1). Eligibility criteria included the following:
(1) Being raised in urban China;
(2) Teaching different subjects during their service;
(3) Ensuring balanced representation across regions and genders (Yunnan: Y1–Y4; Guizhou: G1–G4; Shanxi: S1–S4; 7 female, 5 male).
Demographic Information of Volunteer Participants.
Data Collection
Two rounds of semi-structured interviews were conducted—one prior to deployment and one after the service year—to capture identity shifts over time. The first round focused on volunteers’ motivations, expectations, and initial perceptions of teaching, while the second round explored their lived teaching experiences, including working conditions, interpersonal interactions, and the personal and professional challenges they encountered. Each interview followed a predetermined guide consisting of open-ended questions and targeted follow-ups. Depending on the depth of participants’ responses, the interviews typically lasted between 45 and 90 min, allowing sufficient time for in-depth exploration of key issues and emergent themes. Data collection continued until theoretical saturation was reached, defined as the point when no new codes or themes emerged from additional interviews. In this study, saturation was judged to be achieved when no new codes or themes appeared after the 10th interview. After identifying this point, one or two additional interviews were conducted to confirm that no new themes would emerge, thereby reinforcing the credibility of the findings. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the first author’s university ethics committee, and all participants provided informed consent prior to participation.
Data Analysis and Trustworthiness
Transcribed interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Initial coding was independently conducted by two researchers, followed by cross-validation to ensure consistency and reliability. During the analysis, Dugas’s (2021) Identity Triangle model was integrated to categorize codes into psychological, relational, and behavioral domains. For example, expressions like “I question whether I am a real teacher” were categorized under psychological domain, “local teachers were friendly to us” under relational domain, and “I was asked to teach unfamiliar subjects” under behavioral domain.
To ensure the trustworthiness and credibility of the study, member checking and peer debriefing strategies were employed. Researchers regularly reflected on their positions and potential biases to minimize subjective influence. The research process strictly adhered to ethical standards to protect participants’ privacy and data confidentiality.
Findings: Identity Construction Via the Identity Triangle Model
Drawing upon interviews with twelve postgraduate volunteer teachers, this study employs Dugas’s Identity Triangle Model to elucidate the multifaceted identity development experienced during their teaching assistance program. Psychologically, many volunteers embarked on their teaching journey with a self-concept as “dedicators,” yet encountered self-doubt and uncertainty during the teaching process, often perceiving themselves as “inexperienced teachers” or “outsiders” in unfamiliar cultural settings, reflecting internal struggles with self-efficacy and professional confidence. Relationally, their interactions with local teachers, students, and community members significantly influenced their sense of belonging and professional identity; positive relationships fostered feelings of acceptance and validation, while instances of marginalization led to a sense of isolation. Behaviorally, the volunteers navigated multiple roles, balancing responsibilities as students, teachers, and community members, often undertaking tasks beyond their teaching duties, such as administrative work, which contributed to role conflict and workload stress. These intertwined experiences across the three domains illustrate the complex and dynamic process of identity construction among volunteer teachers, highlighting the need for support mechanisms that address challenges holistically. Notably, some volunteers proactively sought to transition from peripheral to central roles within their school communities by taking on additional responsibilities and initiating collaborative projects, thereby enhancing their sense of agency and reinforcing their professional identities.
The Psychological Domain: Value Orientation, Role Conflict, and Self-Reflection
“Dedicators” and “Observers”: Volunteers’ Value Identification and Role Expectation Prior to the Teaching Service
Before beginning their teaching assignments, most graduate volunteers had already formed an initial sense of identity as participants in the program. This pre-service identification was shaped not only by their belief in the value of educational service, but also by aspirations for personal growth, self-exploration, and social engagement. Among the 12 participants interviewed, 3 had majored in teacher education at the undergraduate level. For them, participating in the teaching service represented a concrete pathway to realize their educational ideals and fulfill a broader sense of civic responsibility. As one volunteer expressed, “I’m a teacher education major. I hope to contribute to improving education in underdeveloped regions through my own efforts.” (S1) Such internally driven value alignment served as both the starting point and the anchor of their evolving identity as dedicated volunteers.
According to the identity triangle model proposed by Dugas et al., meaning-making within the psychological domain is deeply influenced by feedback from significant others in the relational domain. In this study, many participants reported that the encouragement and recognition they received—from students, parents, and school leaders—played a crucial role in reinforcing their self-perception as meaningful contributors. Expressions such as “seeing the joy on students’ faces,” or “being told our work made a difference,” offered both emotional affirmation and a sense of social validation. As one volunteer explained, “The feeling of helping others is what motivates me.” These moments of recognition helped deepen their identification with the role of dedicated volunteer, creating an affective feedback loop grounded in being needed and being seen.
Beyond the role of dedicated volunteer, many participants also developed an identity as “observers”—one shaped not only by the desire to serve, but also by the intention to reflect, explore, and understand. On the one hand, this referred to self-observation. Through the teaching service, many sought to explore their personal limits—for example, whether they were suited for teaching or capable of adapting to the demanding conditions of rural life. As one participant explained, “I want to use this opportunity to explore whether I’m capable of becoming a teacher and whether I truly enjoy teaching.” (Y1) Another noted, “I hope that by teaching in the western region for a year, I can improve my ability to adapt to tough conditions. This experience will help me better connect with reality, whether I choose to teach or work in public affairs.” (Y3) For these participants, the service year functioned as a form of self-observation, helping them to refine their understanding of personal capabilities and vocational fit. On the other hand, the observer identity also pointed outward—toward society. Several volunteers emphasized that the teaching experience offered a valuable opportunity to “enter rural areas, understand society, and recognize the educational disparities between eastern and western China.” As one participant stated, “I hope that through the teaching service, I can observe the current state of rural education in China, its social relationships, and local customs, and gain a broader understanding of how society functions at a macro level.” (S3)
These reflective orientations align with the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI), which posits that volunteers are motivated by a mix of value expression, career aspirations, and personal growth (Clary et al., 1998). For instance, while some participants voiced altruistic goals like “supporting left-behind children,” others viewed teaching as a stepping stone to public service careers. These diverse motives shaped not only their decision to participate, but also how they made sense of their roles and evaluated their impact (Finkelstein, 2008; Hustinx & Handy, 2009).
Such dual motivations also reflect Rehberg’s (2005) concept of “altruistic individualism,” wherein volunteers seek both to help others and advance themselves. This interplay illuminates why some volunteers oscillated between being perceived as “dedicated contributors” and “career-oriented outsiders,” especially when institutional and relational feedback varied across school contexts. The integration of motivational frameworks into the psychological domain underscores that identity formation is not only a function of external conditions but also a projection of future-oriented self-positioning (Clary et al., 1998; Rehberg, 2005).
“Inexperienced Teachers” and “Temporary Teaching Assistants”: Self-Doubt and Identity Struggles at the Frontline of Service
As the teaching service progressed and responsibilities expanded, many volunteers encountered new identity tensions. While they generally embraced the mission of dedicated volunteers—as one participant put it, “I am a drop of water in the teaching assistance project; I should contribute to the western part of my country.” (G2)—the unpredictability and shifting demands of their assignments exposed them to increasing role ambiguity and internal uncertainty within the psychological domain.
Among the 12 volunteers interviewed, 8 had taught across multiple grades or subjects, and 4 had served as acting homeroom teachers. One participant shared, “I originally taught geography, but when the homeroom and language teachers went on maternity leave, I was asked to take over. I’m not a trained teacher and have no classroom management experience… I often feel overwhelmed.” (Y2) These unexpected transitions challenged their confidence and sense of competence, creating a dissonance between their aspiration to serve and their perceived inadequacy in fulfilling the responsibilities of a qualified teacher.
The identity of “inexperienced teacher” was especially pronounced in the early stages of teaching. Nine out of 12 had no formal teacher training, and 8 reported preparing materials only the night before class. “I was originally a teacher education major in English, but the host school said they lacked geography teachers, so I was assigned to teach both junior high English and geography—25 lessons a week. That brought a lot of pressure in terms of lesson preparation… I’m not good at geography at all, so I basically started from scratch, learning as I taught.” (Y3) The gap between their academic background and actual assignments deepened their self-doubt, particularly regarding subject mastery, pedagogical strategies, and student engagement. Many began to ask themselves: Am I really a teacher?
This sense of inadequacy was further intensified by social comparisons. As Stets and Burke (2000) note, individuals define group belonging through “us versus them” distinctions. Several volunteers expressed a sense of marginalization: “Compared to local teachers, we feel like ‘visitors’. They’re the real teachers.” They were aware that “everyone knows we’re only here for a year,” reinforcing the perception of being temporary figures with no lasting status—outsiders in the professional community.
Despite these challenges, some volunteers actively sought to transcend the label of “temporary teaching assistant” and embraced the aspiration of becoming versatile teachers. One remarked, “Society, school leaders, and local teachers expect a lot from us. As a teacher education student, teaching assistance is a dream for me. My goal is to be the best, the most responsible, and the most versatile teacher I can be.” (Y4) This confluence of personal ambition and external expectations motivated volunteers to renegotiate their identity and redefine their place within the teaching environment.
Crucially, the host schools’ educational atmosphere and students’ positive responses played an important role in reshaping their psychological self-concept. As one volunteer reflected, “When I fully immerse myself in teaching, I see myself simply as an ordinary teacher. I believe my journey only truly begins when I forget my identity as a volunteer.” (S1) This process of internal adjustment illustrates the fluidity of identity within the psychological domain, as volunteers navigate between their roles as temporary assistants and aspiring educators, seeking to reconcile personal growth with societal expectations.
The Relational Domain: Outsider Perceptions and Cultural Negotiation
Identity Boundaries and the Feeling of Being an “Outsider.”
According to the identity triangle model proposed by Dugas et al., individuals construct their self-concept within the relational domain through interactions with significant others. For graduate teaching volunteers, entering an unfamiliar service environment often brings about cultural dissonance, communication barriers, and a sense of social distance. This produces a relational self-perception of being an outsider—not a local resident, not a full-time teacher, and not a long-term participant.
Many volunteers reported difficulties adjusting to local customs and everyday routines. “Basically, the school cafeteria has no meat—it’s mostly vegetable porridge, gruel, and flatbread, which fully reflects northern eating habits. As someone from the south, I find it hard to adapt.” (S3) Language posed another major challenge. “Local teachers and leaders mostly speak in dialect—even in meetings—and we could hardly understand a thing.” (S4) These cultural and communicative barriers reinforced volunteers’ sense of difference and disconnection, heightening their perception of being outsiders in the local environment.
This cultural sense of otherness often evolved into a deeper feeling of structural marginalization within the school context. As one volunteer put it, “Reality turned out to be more complicated than expected,” and at times he questioned whether his contributions were truly needed—or simply overlooked. “After arriving, I realized the school already functioned quite independently. Some of the approaches I suggested didn’t have much impact… When I saw things I didn’t agree with, I felt less inclined to get involved.” (S1) This perceived marginal status undermined his sense of belonging to the professional community, reinforcing a temporary mindset—viewing the year of teaching assistance as a transitional assignment rather than a meaningful professional role with long-term significance. This perceived boundary between “us” and “them” reflects key processes described in Social Identity Theory, wherein the lack of in-group status undermines role internalization and identity coherence (Reicher, Haslam, & Hopkins, 2010; Stets & Burke, 2000).
Relational Adjustment and Identity Negotiation
While many volunteers initially perceived themselves as outsiders, some actively sought to bridge cultural gaps and integrate into their host communities. This was not merely a matter of passive adaptation, but a dynamic process of relational identity negotiation—entailing shifts in behavior, language, and interpersonal expectations to better connect with local norms. “At first I couldn’t understand the dialect at all, but over time I learned enough to use the local ‘hometown language’ in simple conversations with students and parents.” (Y2) Another remarked, “The principal and teachers are kind, but their communication style is very direct. You just have to get used to it.” (S4)
These everyday efforts signal a subtle but meaningful identity transformation—from peripheral newcomer to culturally attuned participant. As one volunteer reflected: “At first, I had a bit of a savior mentality. I thought I could bring advanced educational concepts from the East to the children here. But once I entered the classroom, I realized those ideas, while well-intentioned, were disconnected from the actual teaching context… I began to see myself as a bridge, someone who shares knowledge and perspectives, rather than imposes them.” (Y2)
This reflection illustrates more than interpersonal adjustment—it marks a relational repositioning of the self. Volunteers are not only reacting to external social cues; they are engaged in a recursive process of self-assessment and redefinition. Crucially, this negotiation often involves shedding the initial moral or professional superiority embedded in urban educational discourse. In its place emerges a more reciprocal stance, in which the volunteer recognizes themselves as part of a local web of relationships, rather than an outsider sent to reform it. Such identity shifts reveal both the possibility and the fragility of belonging in contexts shaped by cultural distance, hierarchical school structures, and uneven power dynamics.
The Behavioral Domain: Enacted Roles and Situated Participation
From “Marginal Assistants” to “Situated Practitioners”: Identity Formation Through Action
In the behavioral domain, volunteer teachers’ identities are enacted and reshaped through their concrete actions and the responsibilities they undertake. As Dugas (2021) notes, identity is not merely internal self-perception, but is continuously constituted through social practice. For teaching volunteers, everyday participation in the school community becomes a key site where professional identity is constructed, negotiated, and recognized.
In some host schools with relatively loose management, volunteers encountered ambiguous role boundaries. One participant noted, “The principal and teachers all know we’re only here for a year, so they often say things like, ‘It doesn’t matter whether you take part in this task or attend that teacher training’.” (S2) Under such circumstances, volunteers were often excluded from the school’s pedagogical and administrative systems, reinforcing a passive identity centered on basic task completion.
However, those volunteers who received positive recognition and cultural acceptance from their schools were more likely to internalize the role of “teacher.” This observation aligns with Social Identity Theory, which emphasizes that in-group identification fosters a stronger sense of belonging and identity coherence (Haslam et al., 2021). As Y2 recalled: “The principal invited us to introduce ourselves at the teachers’ meeting, praising us as ‘outstanding postgraduate students here to contribute’. During the school-wide flag-raising ceremony, the principal had all students and staff applaud to welcome us, and later appointed me as a host for the school’s Arts Festival.” Through active involvement in school affairs, these volunteers gradually redefined their roles within the educational community. For instance, G1 took the initiative to co-organize a school sports event, manually marking a 300-m running track and developing user manuals for digital tools—efforts that earned recognition from school leaders. Other volunteers also went beyond their assigned duties, demonstrating a strong sense of agency and professionalism: S2, S4, and Y3 represented their schools in interschool teaching competitions, while Y2, G2, G3, G4 engaged in community outreach projects such as tutoring left-behind children and promoting disaster preparedness.
Importantly, these actions often led to affirmation and recognition from others. Some volunteers recalled: The restaurant owner near the school knew we were volunteer teachers and said it wasn’t easy for us to come all the way from afar—so he refused to take our money. (Y2) The delivery worker brought us cherries and thanked us warmly. (S2) At first, we were worried that parents wouldn’t accept us. But over time, they saw how we cared about the children and gradually acknowledged our efforts. (Y3)
Such emotional recognition not only strengthened volunteers’ sense of professional belonging but also served as a social cue that facilitated the internalization of the teaching role. The behavioral domain thus reveals a dynamic identity process in which volunteers transition from peripheral task performers to active educational agents, with intentional action, public recognition, and expanded responsibility reinforcing their evolving identities. This illustrates that volunteer teacher identity is not merely a product of personal initiative, but is co-constructed within relational and institutional feedback loops that validate their legitimacy and role alignment (Reicher, Spears, & Haslam, 2010; Stets & Burke, 2000).
Discussion
Reinterpreting Identity Development Through the Identity Triangle
As illustrated in Figure 1, the identity development of graduate teaching volunteers unfolds across three interrelated domains—psychological, relational, and behavioral. Volunteers enter the service with internal ideals, often framing themselves as devoted contributors or cautious observers. Yet in the psychological domain, these beliefs are tested and transformed by the pedagogical uncertainties and emotional realities of rural teaching.
A triangular identity model of graduate teaching volunteers. The model illustrates identity dynamics across psychological, relational, and behavioral domains.
In the relational domain, volunteers navigate their status as temporary outsiders, gradually negotiating their positions through trust-building and interpersonal engagement. In the behavioral domain, their identities are enacted and expanded through situated practices—moving from marginal execution of tasks to active participation in school and community life.
Crucially, these domains do not function in isolation. Internal beliefs shape behavioral choices; social feedback influences self-understanding; and meaningful actions generate recognition that reinforces or reshapes both values and relationships. Identity thus emerges as a dynamic, recursive process grounded in lived experience.
By applying the Identity Triangle Model (Dugas, 2021) in the context of rural volunteer teaching, this study not only validates its explanatory power, but also reveals how identity construction is deeply shaped by institutional contexts. The findings underscore that teacher identity is not a purely individual journey, but a situated, socially embedded process. These insights provide both theoretical enrichment and practical implications for designing support systems that enable volunteers to grow not just as helpers, but as educators with sustained professional commitment.
U-D-S Collaboration as an Institutional Support Mechanism
The identity construction of graduate student teaching volunteers is a dynamic process shaped by the complex interplay of individual motivation, relational experiences, and situated practices. In this study, “transcendence” refers to the self-improvement and boundary-crossing achieved by volunteer teachers after navigating identity dilemmas, specifically manifested in three aspects: enhanced role competence, deepened professional identity, and a transition from outsiders to members of the educational community. This study argues that this identity formation process is closely linked to the University-District-School (U-D-S) tripartite partnership model. Within this framework, the support system jointly established by universities, local governments, and recipient schools provides crucial reinforcement for volunteer identity development. In such a collaborative structure, identity is no longer a singular psychological process or a static label but rather an ongoing, dynamic construction emerging from relational interactions, institutional structures, and everyday practices.
In light of this understanding, the following section offers targeted, mechanism-oriented recommendations from the perspectives of universities (U), local governments (D), and schools (S), with the goal of building a more synergistic and sustainable volunteer teaching community that meaningfully enhances volunteers’ sense of identity and professional affiliation.
Universities: Addressing Identity Uncertainty Through Pre-Service Framing and Ongoing Institutional Anchoring
Many volunteers enter the program with enthusiasm but limited understanding of what it means to “be a teacher” in the complex contexts of rural schools. This often results in identity uncertainty and a disconnect between expectation and reality. As the starting point of volunteers’ professional journey, universities are well positioned to mitigate this gap through purposeful role framing and sustained institutional support.
Meyer et al. (2023) emphasize that the structure and content of teacher education programs significantly influence the actual and designated identity profiles of pre-service teachers. Accordingly, pre-service training should go beyond pedagogical instruction to include contextual immersion—exposing volunteers to the sociocultural realities of rural education through field visits, case analyses, and dialogues with experienced alumni. In addition, incorporating culturally responsive pedagogy into training programs, as advocated by Sleeter (2012), can help volunteers shift from viewing themselves as “knowledge exporters” to “collaborative co-learners.” Such pedagogical framing equips them with the skills necessary to navigate diverse and unfamiliar classroom settings, thereby reinforcing their evolving professional identities.
Beyond initial training, universities can establish identity mentoring systems where faculty members or experienced alumni provide ongoing guidance through structured reflection practices such as journaling and virtual check-ins. As Cai et al. (2022) suggest, guided reflection supports identity development by enabling volunteers to process ambiguity and reframe challenges as opportunities for growth.
Finally, to avoid institutional fragmentation, universities should co-develop feedback loops with host schools and local governments. These collaborative mechanisms for sharing volunteers’ progress, challenges, and innovations help create a cohesive U-D-S support network, ensuring that identity formation is a coordinated and context-sensitive process.
Recipient Schools: Collaborative Cultivation to Strengthen Volunteer Identity
In the construction of volunteer identity, recipient schools serve not only as venues for teaching practice but also as crucial platforms for socialization and professional growth. The degree of acceptance, support mechanisms, and quality of interactions within schools directly influence volunteers’ sense of identity and belonging as teachers.
Firstly, integrating volunteers into the school’s professional community is essential. Assigning them responsibilities equivalent to full-time teachers—such as participating in curriculum development, teaching research, and administrative meetings—can foster a sense of ownership and professional legitimacy and enhance volunteers’ commitment and identification with the teaching role (Chen, 2024).
Secondly, recipient schools should assign experienced teachers to provide one-on-one mentorship for volunteers. This professional companionship should not only offer effective guidance on subject teaching and classroom management but also support volunteers in adapting to the school’s cultural norms and social environment (Mbhiza et al., 2024).
Thirdly, addressing the emotional well-being of volunteers is crucial. Organizing social events, such as welcome ceremonies and celebrating Teachers’ Day with local staff, can alleviate feelings of isolation and cultural dissonance; implementing feedback mechanisms that allow volunteers to contribute to school decision-making processes can empower them and validate their professional input.
Local Governments: Constructing Supportive Environments to Enhance Volunteer Identity
Local governments provide institutional support, resource assurance, and emotional recognition, facilitating their transition from “outsiders” to integral members of the educational community.
Firstly, offering necessary living and working support, such as accommodation arrangements, transportation subsidies, and health insurance, is a crucial way for local governments to support volunteers. These measures not only alleviate volunteers’ concerns but also reflect governmental recognition and appreciation of their work.
Furthermore, organizing regular training and exchange activities can promote interaction and collaboration between volunteers and local teachers. Hosting teaching seminars and experience-sharing sessions helps volunteers learn from local teaching practices, enhance their teaching skills, and build connections with the local educational community.
Lastly, actively publicizing volunteers’ achievements through media coverage and recognition events increases public awareness and appreciation of volunteer services. This public acknowledgment not only boosts volunteers’ pride and sense of belonging but also encourages broader participation in volunteer activities (Figure 2).
A U-D-S collaborative model for enhancing the identity recognition of volunteer teachers.
In summary, universities, local governments, and recipient schools each play distinct yet complementary roles in shaping the identity of teaching volunteers. While universities provide the structural framing and institutional anchoring for identity development, local governments ensure policy endorsement and social recognition. Recipient schools, through situated integration and relational support, enable volunteers to internalize their professional roles. Only through sustained, collaborative efforts across these three sectors can a supportive and sustainable identity ecology be established—one that truly empowers volunteers to transition from outsiders to valued members of the educational community.
Cross-Cultural Comparison and Theoretical Implications
Our findings regarding role ambiguity and marginalization among Chinese graduate teaching volunteers align with international research on identity struggles in alternative certification programs. For example, Mawhinney and Rinke (2020) found that novice teachers in Teach for America often face identity crises due to the simultaneous pressures of learning and teaching. Similarly, Elliott (2018) observed that participants in Teach First are positioned as “elite change agents” rather than typical educators, leading to partial integration into the professional teaching community. These shared identity dilemmas—negotiating legitimacy, professional inclusion, and self-efficacy—appear across socio-political contexts, suggesting that our study contributes to a broader, cross-cultural understanding of early-career teacher identity.
Furthermore, our proposed strategies—such as teacher empowerment, emotional support, and mentoring—resonate with international best practices. McConnell and Swanson (2024) demonstrated that teacher autonomy and professional growth opportunities reduce burnout and attrition. Ben-Amram and Davidovitch (2024) highlighted that mentoring based on trust and emotional recognition significantly improves novice teachers’ confidence and belonging. These findings support the universality and transferability of our recommendations, offering theoretical robustness and practical relevance beyond the Chinese context.
By situating our findings within an international framework, this study contributes not only to localized policy reform for volunteer teaching in rural China but also to a global discourse on novice teacher identity development under institutional asymmetries.
Limitations and Future Directions
Limitations
First, this study primarily focuses on volunteer teachers within China’s “Graduate Student Teaching Support Program,” whose identity development is deeply influenced by specific institutional contexts. Consequently, the applicability of the findings to other types of volunteer service programs or different socio-cultural settings may be limited. Future research could consider expanding the sample scope to include volunteer teachers from diverse regions, cultural backgrounds, or organizational forms to enhance the study’s generalizability and applicability.
Second, this study employs qualitative research methods to delve into the identity development processes of volunteer teachers. However, the subjectivity inherent in qualitative research may affect the objectivity and verifiability of the results. Future studies could incorporate quantitative methods, such as surveys or experimental designs, to validate and supplement qualitative findings, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding.
Third, the identity development pathways explored in this study are specific to the institutional context of China’s Graduate Student Teaching Support Program, which differs significantly from volunteer service programs in countries like the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of organizational mechanisms and management approaches. For instance, programs like “Teach for America” and “Teach First” are primarily led by non-profit organizations, emphasizing market-oriented operations and leadership development, whereas China’s program is government-led, focusing on policy orientation and social responsibility. Although this study employs the U-D-S collaboration model and the identity triangle model as analytical tools, their applicability needs to be examined in light of the specific contexts of different countries and programs.
Future Directions
Future research can be expanded in the following areas:
Cross-cultural comparative studies: Explore the identity development processes of volunteer teachers in different countries and cultural contexts, comparing similarities and differences to enrich theoretical frameworks.
Longitudinal studies: Conduct long-term follow-ups with volunteer teachers to observe the ongoing evolution of their identities and career development paths, understanding the long-term impact of volunteer service experiences on their professional lives.
Mixed-methods research: Combine qualitative and quantitative research methods, utilizing various data sources such as interviews, surveys, and observations to provide a more comprehensive analysis.
Policy impact studies: Evaluate the effects of different policy environments and organizational structures on the identity and career development of volunteer teachers, providing empirical evidence for policy-making.
Conclusion
This study explored the identity construction of Chinese graduate teaching volunteers through the integrated lens of Dugas’s Identity Triangle and Wenger’s Communities of Practice, focusing on how psychological, relational, and behavioral dimensions interact to shape professional identity in rural teaching contexts. The findings reveal that volunteers often experience identity ambiguity, cultural dissonance, and role overload during their service, but many also exhibit agency and adaptability in transitioning from marginal actors to situated practitioners. This dynamic process is driven by their internal values, interpersonal interactions, and everyday teaching practices.
Importantly, identity formation does not occur in isolation but is embedded within institutional structures and power asymmetries. The study proposes the University–District–School (U-D-S) collaboration model as a practical framework to address these challenges, underscoring the synergistic roles of universities, local governments, and host schools in fostering professional integration and emotional recognition. Cross-cultural comparisons further validate the universality of identity dilemmas among early-career teachers and emphasize the need for multi-level support systems.
By situating Chinese graduate volunteer teaching within a global discourse on novice teacher identity, this research contributes to the theoretical refinement of identity models and offers actionable policy recommendations. It highlights that identity development is not merely about acquiring teaching skills, but about becoming educators who are recognized, supported, and empowered to grow. Future research should expand the comparative scope and explore how long-term institutional engagement may strengthen identity consolidation beyond the temporal bounds of volunteer programs.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to the many volunteers who contributed their time, knowledge, and energy to developing this document.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work is supported by the Chinese National Education Science Funding: Research on the Cultivation Mechanism of Interdisciplinary Teaching Ability of Pre-service Teachers in the Context of the New Curriculum (BRA240218).
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.