Barriers to Promoting Critical Thinking Skills: An Empirical Study of Female Pre-Service English Teachers’ Perceptions in Jouf University in Saudi Arabia

Abstract

Critical thinking (CT) is an essential life skill that needs to be instilled in young minds during their education years. This study explored pre-service English teachers’ perceptions of the barriers to promoting CT skills in Saudi classrooms and investigated potential solutions to these perceived barriers. The study used a qualitative research design. Data were collected by conducting semi-structured interviews with 25 female pre-service English teachers. The issues that emerged as barriers to the promotion and development of CT skills in classrooms related to the personality of students, teaching methods, and the culture of criticism. The study proposes measures to enhance the development of CT skills in the classroom, including modifications to the teaching methods courses that are offered in pre-service English programs and the changing of perceptions toward CT skills.

Introduction

In recent years, the introduction of critical thinking (CT) into education has become a global aim (Alnoafaie, 2013). CT is a 21st century skill encompassing the use of creativity, the ability to express an opinion, problem solving, and decision making (Saleh, 2019). The requirement to learn these skills presents universities—across the world and in Saudi Arabia in particular—with a great challenge, as higher education institutions must achieve an alignment between their outputs and the CT skills required by the labor market. In addition, universities must bridge any future skill gaps, by managing not only the current market demands but also predicting future requirements, according to the developments in society. Thus, the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia, in line with the Kingdom’s education policy, aims to provide opportunities for all within a suitable education setting, to raise the quality of education output, and to increase the effectiveness of scientific research. In the same vein, the strategic framework of the Saudi Arabia Vision 2030 is targeted at reforming and redesigning the system of instruction, regulations, and rules governing curriculum development. A specific focus is on teachers’ enrollment in the educational corps, organizing the educational supervision process, and continuously raising the effectiveness of professional development and training, which will in turn set the base for predicting and building the 21st century skills that are essential for the labor market and the next generation of employees.

In 2020, as part of this strategic process, the Saudi Ministry of Education decided to add CT to its curricula, in order to provide students with the skills of analysis and questioning, and the ability to exercise their own minds. This new strategy has abandoned the traditional approach to education by indoctrination, in which the student’s mind was filled with ineffective cramming; indoctrination had failed to ignite the mind to create a personal vision and cognitive identity, and resulted in a lack of analysis, creativity, and dialog. The newly introduced subject of CT is taught by holders of postgraduate qualifications (Master’s degrees or doctorates), whereas other subjects (such as mathematics, science, and literature) are taught by teachers with degrees in education. The primary rationale for the Ministry of Education to provide this subject is because effective learning cannot take place without thinking. In line with Vision 2030 goals, CT motivates students to improve their own knowledge and encourages them to examine and reexamine ideas that may be unclear. CT enables students to improve their observation skills and to distinguish between facts and opinions. It also enhances learners’ flexibility in problem solving and promotes openness and independence in decision making. Students’ CT skills are measured in the Saudi education system through essay-based assessments in the social sciences and humanities. Therefore, students’ subject knowledge is marked simultaneously alongside their critical reading and writing skills.

Given the investment in this new subject area and its strategic significance in Saudi Arabia, it is essential for educators to investigate whether CT skills are being taught in pre-service teacher education programs, to determine how they are being taught, and to establish whether the importance of CT is being appropriately recognized. Given the role of English as a lingua franca, it is also necessary to ascertain if there are any barriers to teaching CT skills in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), or in implementing CT skills in Saudi schools. Identifying and investigating any barriers may lead to appropriate solutions and assist in developing the acquisition of CT skills by Saudi students. Therefore, the current study contributes to our knowledge by addressing the important issues related to the teaching of CT skills in higher education in a Saudi university. Using an in-depth, qualitative approach, this study considers how pre-service English teachers (PSETs) perceive and recognize the importance of CT. It also identifies the barriers to applying CT skills in teaching practices. Specifically, the study aims to answer the following questions:

1. What are the perceptions of PSETs at Jouf University about the concept of CT?

2. What are the perceptions of PSETs at Jouf University about the importance of CT skills?

3. What barriers do PSETs at Jouf University believe they face in promoting the development of CT skills?

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

A significant number of research studies have discussed CT as a concept and highlighted the importance of this skill in contemporary education (Dwyer et al., 2014; Saleh, 2019; Ten Dam & Volman, 2004). In fact, CT has played a fundamental role in Western education since the Enlightenment period, but it has only gained popularity in non-Western countries in the modern era (Solihati & Hikmat, 2018). As a consequence, the need for curriculum reform in non-Western nations has been highlighted in recent literature. Key areas of research have included the development of CT teaching strategies (Tuzlukova et al., 2017; Wang & Seepho, 2017; Zandvakili et al., 2019) and the perceptions of CT held by teachers and learners (Du & Zhang, 2022; Khalid et al., 2021). The present study draws on the theoretical framework offered by Du and Zhang (2022) in their analysis of CT and curriculum reform in the Chinese context. They assert that “teaching and learning critical thinking are culturally complex” activities, which are deeply influenced by a range of environmental factors and socio-cultural patterns. Du and Zhang (2022) foreground the notion of “learning affordances,” defined by the authors as “the perceived action possibilities provided by the environment.” In this model, perceptions of the learning environment are an important factor in the development of critical thinking and generate valuable insights into the quality and effectiveness of the curriculum. Research about PSETs’ perceptions of CT and the barriers of applying CT in the classroom have only recently emerged, especially in the Arab region (Allamnakhrah, 2013). In broader terms, despite the widespread recognition of CT as a crucial life skill for all learners, in professional and academic life, there is no consensus on its definition. Furthermore, there is little assessment of the effectiveness of educational programs to enhance the critical skills of students. Therefore, this study will focus primarily on the perceptions of PSETs in Saudi Arabia in three core areas: definitions of CT, the importance of CT, and the aspects which obstruct the use of CT inside the classroom.

The Definition of CT

There are numerous definitions of the concept of CT in the literature. Many of these interpretations specify the ability to evaluate a given problem or topic, by assessing and judging as well as evaluating your own reasoning. Facione (1990) is considered one of the major early contributors in this field and he defined CT as follows:

We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based. Critical thinking is essential as a tool of inquiry. (p. 3)

Elder and Paul (2010, p. 38) identified CT as “the process of analysing and assessing thinking with a view to improve it.” Similarly, Siegal (2010, p. 141) indicated that CT includes the dispositions to engage in and be guided by such assessment and reasoning. CT is also considered to be a tool for decision making (Innabi, 2003). From this perspective, CT represents a vital skill, in the exercise of which an individual makes a reasoned choice based on the facts existing in the macro environment (Innabi, 2003). Generally, it can be stated that CT is essential for everyday life and especially for the academic setting, since in this latter dimension it directly influences learning and comprehension given the need to consume and synthesize large amounts of information (Hughes & Lavery, 2015). That said, the success of CT is largely dependent on the abilities and cognitive skills possessed by a specific individual (Hughes & Lavery, 2015). Therefore, CT involves a form of mastery, which is achieved by objectively evaluating insights from different sources, and this process requires the possession and development of mental capabilities related to understanding (Hughes & Lavery, 2015).

Barriers to Applying CT Inside the Classroom

Saudi education researchers are familiar with the challenges associated with employing student-centered learning activities in Saudi EFL classrooms. Approaches to active learning, including activities such as debates or discussions, are often considered likely to fail in a Saudi EFL context (Al-Seghayer, 2015; Al-Shehri, 2004). Saudi students are generally uncomfortable with communicative tasks where they are expected to think critically or share original ideas with classmates and teachers in unfamiliar classroom settings (Al-Zahrani & Elyas, 2017).

Numerous factors have been identified as contributing to this issue, including teaching methods, curriculum, students’ abilities to think in a critical way, classroom size, school community, and Saudi society (Alwadai, 2014). Regarding the ability to think critically, a plethora of studies have examined Saudi students’ CT ability in high schools (Al-Essa, 2009; Al-Qahtani, 1995), secondary schools (Al Gamdi, 2008), and at the higher education level (Allamnakhrah, 2013; Alwehaibi, 2012). In these studies, Saudi students are portrayed as lacking CT skills because of the nature of the teacher preparation programs, school curricular, and learning activities. A need to reform the educational system has been identified; critically, this reform must include CT in the school curriculum. Correspondingly, Al-Qahtani (1995) concluded that the majority of Saudi students lacked CT skills because the teachers who do provide instruction on CT skills are ineffective, and in general terms there is a deficiency in CT skills being taught in school courses.

The traditional method of teaching—which focuses on rote learning, lecturing, and memorization, and does not promote CT within classrooms—is considered to be one of the contributing factors that hinders the implementation of CT (Allamnakhrah, 2013; Alwadai, 2014). In Bataineh and Alazzi’s (2009) study conducted in Jordan, the authors noted how the educational system focused heavily on preparing students for formal testing that does not require CT. Therefore, students guide all their efforts into succeeding in formal tests that focus on the use of memory and facts.

In response to the criticisms regarding students’ CT capacity, a significant number of education researchers have acknowledged that success in developing students’ CT skills depends on the teachers (e.g., Sa & Abdurrahman, 2008; Smith, 2002; Thibeault, 2004). Özkan-Akan (2003) emphasized that teachers’ perceptions also play a crucial role in the development of students’ CT skills, either positively or negatively. A significant proportion of researchers indicated that teachers’ perceptions toward CT skills, in relation to students, are influenced by several factors. These include teachers’ educational backgrounds, teaching experience, teaching approaches, classroom facilities, learning materials in the class and culture of the society, and school (Allamnakhrah, 2013; Al-Qahtani, 1995; Alwehaibi, 2012; Özkan-Akan, 2003).

Gashan (2015) stressed that teachers’ perceptions have a noticeable impact on the development of students’ CT abilities, and she has advocated for the value of teaching CT. In her study, Gashan identified that Saudi pre-service teachers strongly agreed with the idea that CT skills occupy students’ higher order thinking, and that these skills enable them to become independent thinkers, and active learners. Teachers also stated that these skills allow students to obtain an enhanced understanding of the course topics, achieve good learning outcomes, and enjoy the learning process. Equally, teachers’ lack of an adequate theoretical and practical awareness of CT skills can potentially obstruct their ability and proficiency in enhancing CT skills among their students (Kowalczyk et al., 2012). Furthermore, without the exact knowledge and correct perception of CT, teachers may believe they are doing the right job in facilitating their learners’ CT when, unfortunately, they are not.

It is evident from the literature review that teachers’ perceptions of CT have been the focus of studies in several parts of the world, including in Saudi Arabia; however, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, only a very limited number of studies have explored the perceptions of PSETs in higher education using a qualitative research approach. To explore the issue of CT in greater detail, this study will determine the extent of PSETs’ knowledge in relation to the meaning of CT. It will also investigate their perceptions about the challenges of implementing CT skills in a Saudi university and the importance of CT in the same context. The aim is to provide Saudi universities with qualitative data and feedback to enable them to focus on improving the skills and abilities of PSETs. In particular, there is a specific opportunity to help PSETs integrate CT activities in their teaching design and to overcome some of the challenges of implementing CT in the classroom.

Methodology/Research Plan

A qualitative research design was used to explore the PSETs’ opinions on three core areas: their understanding of the conceptual meaning of CT, their perception of the importance of this concept in education, and the perceived barriers that influence the implementation of CT in the classroom.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the participants because this approach provided a degree of flexibility and allowed for unexpected lines of inquiry to emerge during the interview process (Grix, 2010). Furthermore, it also gave participants the opportunity to speak in detail and with freedom about their personal experiences and what is centrally important to them within the designed framework of the researcher (Cohen et al., 2018). The interview stage enabled a detailed exploration of PSETs’ views regarding the development of students’ CT skills in the English department at Jouf University, and to ascertain how these skills are deployed in the EFL classroom. During the interviews, Arabic was the primary language used for communication. The interviews were recorded with the participants’ consent, and then later translated into English by the researcher for the purpose of analysis.

The interviews were relatively informal and took place face-to-face in a room on the campus of Jouf University. A digital recorder was used to capture the interviews in their entirety and notes were taken to illuminate any potential ambiguity in the transcript. A copy of the interview questions was provided to each interviewee at least 2 days before the interview date. This gave the interviewees an overall idea of the nature of the questions and the time to think about their responses, contributing toward “richness, depth of response, comprehensiveness and honesty that [are] some of the hallmarks of successful interviewing” (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 278).

In this study, a constructivist view of interviews was taken, in which the interview data are not viewed as objective accounts of an external reality but as a form of interaction jointly constructed by the interviewer and interviewee (e.g., see Copland et al., 2019; Mann, 2016). In addition, each interview encounter generated an exclusive interactional event. Informants could articulate their individual views and experiences, meaning that the constructivist approach to our interviews created an exploratory space. One set of questions was prepared for all the PSETs. These questions were based on a reading of the relevant literature, particularly Khalid et al. (2021), and were designed to cover the interviewees’ experience. The reasons governing the use of the questions from Khalid et al.’s (2021) study are the similarities in the cultural background and their suitability for gaining a better understanding of how PSETs define CT and the barriers to its implementation. Topics covered in the interview included the meaning of CT, the importance of thinking skills in education and learning, and the obstacles in promoting the development of CT. Open-ended questions were used in the interviews and these were followed up by more probing questions and prompts. To check the trustworthiness of interviews, several measures were undertaken in this study to focus on credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).

Participants

The qualitative data was gathered through the purposive sampling of 25 Saudi PSETs selected to be interviewed by myself as the researcher. Participants of the study were fourth-year students in a bachelors’ teacher preparatory program at an art college in Jouf University in Saudi Arabia. The participants were purposively selected because they have taken courses in CT and have experienced 8 weeks of teaching practicum each academic year. The participants were all females aged 18 to 24 (with a mean age of 22). Each of the students has a high school diploma and will be awarded a bachelor’s degree in education at the end of the four-year training program. The participants came from a culturally homogenous social background and lived in the same city in which this study was conducted. These students had all studied English for a number of years, ranging from 7 to 10 years.

Qualitive Data Analysis

As explained above, this study adopted semi-structured interviews for collecting the data from the participants and the data were qualitatively analyzed. Although there are different methods for analyzing qualitative data, thematic analysis was adopted in this case, so as to focus on “identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2013, p. 79). The thematic analysis included six main steps: familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the report (Braun & Clarke, 2013, p. 87). By following these steps, I generated descriptive and MAXQDA codes. I then used MAXQDA Version 2020 software to manage and shape my data as it helped to logically code and sort the fieldnotes data (Copland, 2018). Finally, the software enabled me to arrange the database and files together in a single file that displayed the codes and categories graphically (Creswell & Poth, 2016, p. 213).

Outcomes

After uploading the interview data to the MAXQDA Version 2020 software, I coded, organized, and categorized the results. The main stage in the whole process of data analysis is the creation of codes. I identified many codes (e.g., experience, definition, importance, barriers) in relation to the PSETs’ perceptions about CT at Jouf University. The codes were redefined into categories (i.e., broader headings under which several codes could be grouped) and themes (i.e., major headings under which a set of categories could be grouped). Attention was paid to key issues emerging from the dataset and how these related to the main aim of the study and the research questions. During this stage, I checked to ensure that the data within themes cohered “together meaningfully,” and that there was also “clear and identifiable distinctions between themes” (Braun & Clarke, 2013, p. 91). At the end of this process, four key themes were identified: learning CT skills; the meaning of CT; the importance of CT in education and the university; and the barriers for promoting CT in education.

Learning CT Skills

The responses revealed that 20 out of 25 of the PSETs had not learned anything about CT skills in English classes in Jouf University. Contributing factors for this deficiency might include the problem of the domain of traditional teaching methods and the perceived failure to “provide the information in an effective way.” As one participant (PSET2) explained, EFL teachers in Saudi high schools adopt the typical way of teaching. According to her, “teachers did not vary in their teaching in order to attract students’ attention; they always use the same approach for the entire period of the academic year.”

For some PSETs, another significant factor that was seen as detrimental to their learning of CT skills was the use of the L1 in the classroom. PSET18 and PSET12 spoke for the majority when they said:

The way of teaching EFL in Saudi schools is not clear and it is confused because they mix Arabic and English at the same time. (PSET18)

I remembered when I was in high school that the English teacher used Arabic half of the time. She was speaking Arabic. (PSET12)

Twenty of the 25 female PSETs in this study referred to the exam-oriented nature of the Saudi EFL classrooms as one of the key problems or reasons that prevented them from learning CT skills.

Some students do not know English at all when they graduate from the high school because it was about grades and how they pass or fail the subjects. (PSET4)

I did not care about English; I just cared about grades. (PSET25)

The remaining five participants confirmed that they have experience in learning CT skills. However, there were differences in their explanations of how they had learned CT. For example, PSET17 stated that she learned CT by using anticipatory thinking in her studies, such as thinking, diagnosing, and preparing ahead for challenges. Some participants stated that they learned CT by focusing on direct questions and providing clear questions to the audience. Three of the participants explained that they had heard about CT, but they had not seen it applied in the university.

The Meaning of CT

The PSETs were asked the question: “Do you have any idea what is meant by critical thinking?” In response, most of the participants provided information about this term. One participant (PSET9) commented that “CT referred to presenting solutions.” Another interviewee alluded to a different notion, as she described CT as the fear of criticism when giving an answer in front of others in the class and associated the term with an embarrassed feeling. Some interviewees argued that CT is related to the ability to investigate a hypothesis and determine whether an idea is true or false, while others indicated that CT involves reasoning skills, or objective analysis where there is no bias for any side of the topic. Several PSETs believed that CT means to be free and to not follow others, while some considered that it refers to what the person believes in and focuses upon, and what his/her practices are in achieving their actions. A small number of those interviewed suggested that CT is a written or oral composition about the positive and negative points relating to a topic or issue. Three of the students indicated that CT is about analyzing the ideas emerging from all observed patterns to solve a problem, whereas four students indicated that CT means to analyze a topic and understand it.

On the other hand, 15 out of 25 of the PSETs stated that they were not familiar with any formal definitions of CT and its associated skills. This finding is consistent with the work of Alazzi (2005, 2008) who reported that Jordanians are not motivated about CT teaching in their schools. According to Alazzi, Jordanian culture is implicated because “the Arabic culture in Jordan strives for harmony and security. Questioning is viewed as opposing the accepted ways of doing things; thus, it is not promoted by the educational system” (Alazzi, 2008, p. 245).

The Importance of CT in Education and the University

Of the PSETs interviewed, 21 out of 25 indicated that CT is essential in education, especially in the university setting. There was a broad consensus among the respondents that it is a very important skill to help them improve as PSETs. For instance, PSET24 described how CT provided her with more speaking opportunities compared to listening exercises and reading books, because some of the topics in which CT was encouraged were more related to her personal life. PSET13 held a similar view to PSET24 concerning the influence of CT on participation and she affirmed that her confidence in speaking had increased slightly. From her personal experience of CT-related activities, she believed that they had given her the courage to speak despite the risk of producing language errors.

A number of factors were identified relating to how CT can assist students in their university life. The first issue was that CT encouraged students to think critically. PSET22 commented that:

The CT helped us to broaden our thinking in the class somehow. My colleagues and I tried to figure out something from the lesson or picture. I mean the class was very motivated (PSET22).

Other participants, such as PSET3, PSET16, and PSET4, mentioned that CT improved their skills in assessing reports and recognizing facts, and also in their evaluation of the facts. PSET4 stated that CT helped her in developing skills, especially in terms of expressing her views. PSET19 illustrated the importance of CT in education as it assisted her and her colleagues to learn in a better way. For example, it had helped her to engage with the modules in a critical and detailed manner. PSET25 added that CT had facilitated better learning because, when she had received criticism, she was able to learn more effectively. A variety of perspectives were expressed (PSET13, PSET2, PSET15, PSET10, PSET23, etc.) indicating the value of CT in helping the respondents in interactive communication and in solving their problems and providing solutions.

Furthermore, participants in the interviews reiterated the importance of CT in the development of their English skills and their ability to acquire the language quickly, as illustrated by the following responses:

I think CT makes you improve your own English skills. When you have to say or write a new sentence about what you are thinking, you must think about your vocabulary. (PSET5)

CT helped me a lot in developing my English. (PSET21)

These comments indicate that students considered CT as being very useful to the development of their English skills. However, some of the PSETs also revealed that they have limited English ability and had struggled significantly when using CT. The depth of the challenge is emphasized in the following interview responses:

CT is very beneficial for us. However, we could not discuss the questions which are related to CT because a few students had high-level English skills, but others did not. (PSET15).

I think CT is very good for us as students but sometimes we do not have enough English skills and we feel it is very hard for us to apply CT in our conversations, especially when raising questions. (PSET19).

In addition, some PSETs indicated that CT is an important resource for improving human intelligence through analyzing, inference, and reasoning skills. One of the participants (PSET7) stated that, if questions are raised about an issue in the future, she would not forget a point that she had mentioned or discussed during a CT exercise. In other words, this type of CT activity helped her to store words and information as it activates the human brain.

The Barriers for Promoting CT in Education

In their interviews, PSETs discussed many barriers relating to the development of CT skills. These challenges included the personality of students, the modules, the teaching method, the relationship between students and teachers, the absence of a culture of criticism, and ignorance about criticism. PSET12 stated that one of the barriers for applying CT is that “it is not found in the modules in the university, therefore the students cannot practice it.”

A key perceived barrier is related to the personality of the students and the culture of criticism (i.e., their way of thinking/their culture of thinking). For example, three PSETs (PSET17, PSET13, PSET12) stated that some students do not accept other views and do not understand the concept of CT. PSET1, PSET23, PSET16, and PSET5 illustrated how certain students have a decisiveness in their opinions and some of them have a weak understanding of CT. Four of the participants (PSET13, PSET23, PSET15, PSET4) argued that students do not always respond to discussion of the topics or questions raised, while others (e.g., PSET2, PSET19, PSET23, PSET24, PSET7, etc.) considered that the majority of students have no ability for communication or for providing solutions for problems. Furthermore, other participants (PSET7, PSET22, PSET18, PSET11) believed that certain students do not understand the meaning of CT and purely focus on the negative points in the topic discussion. In addition, some PSETs revealed that there is a lack of ability in terms of awareness/recognition of CT, and the relevant skills are not acquired easily; these factors were considered as barriers in applying CT. “Intolerance of opinions and ignorance of the subject” and “no interest in the conclusion of the topic” are seen as obstacles to developing CT in the classroom (PSET4, PSET12, PSET20, PSET23, and PSET17).

I believe these issues are related to the culture of Saudi society, which is predominantly one of uncritical submission to authority. For instance, from when they are born, children are discouraged from questioning their elders and from challenging their teachers. For example, PSET23 stated that “I think the problem comes from the early stages when we were children, I mean from the environment in which we grow up…. We are living in an uncritical society…. No question, no argument…. Society doesn’t encourage discussion, even between parents and kids.” Similarly, PSET3 considered the nature of Saudi society as a contributing factor for the lack of CT, whereas PSET7 observed that “if the society does not encourage people to think critically, it is very challenging for a university to teach it to its students.” It seems that, with regards to CT, there is a dialectical relationship between cultural practice in society and pedagogical practice in the university.

Another observed barrier in applying CT was the relationship between the teacher and student. Some participants (PSET14, PSET14, PSET25, PSET13) mentioned that if there is bad communication between a teacher and students, students will not express their views because there is a feeling of fear and they do not feel comfortable. Conversely, any feeling of fear or uncertainty felt by the teachers toward the students was considered another obstacle to CT.

In addition to these barriers was the problem of the dominance of traditional teaching methods and the perceived failure to “present the information in an effective way” (PSET4). PSET23 believed that EFL teachers did not have the ability to present information in a “good way.” Similarly, “the low levels in education and rapid changes” (PSET25) in the system have also hindered the application of CT in the classroom. Further, some of the students stated that there are no activities, and little enthusiasm in learning and teaching, especially in teaching. Several participants indicated that some teachers did not use CT skills in their teaching classes, while other teachers did not ask the students to implement this method either. PSET9, PSET12, and PSET28 indicated that information was presented in a weak and unclear way, and this was viewed as detrimental in terms of applying CT. In a related point, the style of teaching was broadly considered to be of critical importance in implementing CT and could cause difficulties (e.g., PSET13, PSET5, PSET3).

Discussion of the Findings

The current study found that the PSETs were generally aware of the meaning of CT. For instance, the participants explained that CT is the ability to investigate a hypothesis, determine whether ideas are true or false and present solutions. These views are related to analytical thinking and indicate that PSETs are familiar with the higher order thinking skills that stem from Bloom’s taxonomy, a framework prioritized in education (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Therefore, participants demonstrated their awareness of the link between CT and higher order thinking skills, and that CT is essential because it includes higher order thinking skills. This finding is in agreement with the study of Samarasinghe (2017) conducted in Oman. Surprisingly, the current study found that 23 out of 25 PSETs had not formally learned about CT, either in their previous or current experience of learning EFL. This finding can be explained due to the domain of traditional teaching methods, the use of the L1 in the classroom, and the exam-oriented nature of Saudi EFL classrooms.

The participants in this study recognized the importance of CT and viewed it as an integral part of their classroom dynamics. The PSETs believed that CT provided opportunities for them to express their views and to broaden their thinking, to learn in a better manner, to participate in interactive communication, to solve problems, to improve their English skills and acquire language quickly, and to improve their overall intelligence. Khalid et al. (2021) arrived at similar findings in their research conducted in Bahrain, identifying that 87% of the Bahraini students in their study had a good understanding of CT and viewed it as an essential skill in education.

Some of the barriers identified in the present study are also in accordance with those stated in Khalid et al. (2021). In the present study, PSETs identified the culture of criticism, the relationship between teachers and students, teaching methods, and teaching module design as the main barriers to the implementation of CT in the classroom. The two major obstacles identified to applying CT are the personality of the students and the culture of criticism. The key student issues included focusing on negative points, refusing to accept other’s views, not responding to the discussion of topics and questions raised, and not having adequate ability in communication or providing solutions for the problem. I believe these challenges are related to the culture of Saudi society which is predominantly one of uncritical submission to authority. In other words, in Saudi culture providing an opinion is a type of critique, which is uncommon in a society that encourages submission to authority in all spheres: social, educational, political, and domestic (see Al-Essa, 2009; Allamnakhrah, 2013).

Furthermore, teachers’ perceptions of the students’ personalities can affect the extent of their implementation of CT in their classroom. This point was evident in Khalid et al.’s (2021) study, where the teachers were not confident in their students’ ability to think critically. The PSETs in the present study referred to how CT is not promoted in the Saudi educational system. Actually, this raises the larger concern of whether it is not only teachers’ perceptions but also the wider culture that plays a role in the lack of CT in Saudi schools.

The current findings are in agreement with the studies conducted byAllamnakhrah, (2013), Alwadai (2014), Bataineh and Alazzi (2009), and Khalid et al. (2021) that suggested CT may be hindered by teaching methods. For example, Khalid et al. (2021, p. 8) concluded that “the use of teaching methods such as lecturing and large class sizes, and available resources are obstacles to the promotion of critical thinking skills in the classroom.” This observation aligns with the present findings, in which teaching methods are considered as an obstacle to the promotion of CT skills in the classroom. It can therefore be suggested that PSETs or university instructors should adapt their teaching methods to better support and improve students’ CT skills in the learning environment.

Interestingly, this study is not in accordance with other Saudi studies (Allamnakhrah, 2013; Alwadai, 2014), since it showed that memorization is not the main method of teaching in Saudi schools.

This study has successfully demonstrated that there are several barriers to the development of CT skills in Saudi classrooms, but it has certain limitations. The findings have provided specific insights into the obstacles faced by the participating PSETs, but as this is a small-scale qualitative study no generalizations can be made. However, this research has identified many issues in need of further investigation and thus provides a starting point for future research. For example, this study could be repeated to gain an understanding of any wider structural problems using larger sample sizes, by using quantitative surveys or by exploring the views of in-service teachers. Further, the evidence from this study has suggested that classroom observation and reflective journals could be effective tools to help achieve a deeper understanding of the issues.

Nevertheless, this paper does make an important contribution by identifying the need for a change in English language teaching methods or strategies in the Saudi classroom. A key recommendation would be the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as an approach to teaching English since it emphasizes interaction and communication in the target language. By encouraging issues to be discussed in more detail, CLT provides students with an opportunity to think in a critical way and to raise “why,”“how,” and “so what” questions. These measures are likely to increase students’ level of confidence in using English and mitigate the feeling that they are unable to express their views.

Conclusion

CT contributes to building a person’s cognitive awareness, and helps them avoid the trap of cognitive disinformation, media excitement, and even media poisoning. It also helps to sort and analyze the information that people receive in a logical, correct, and better-quality manner and to distinguish between what is negative and bad, what is positive and beneficial, and the spectrum that lies between. The majority of the participants in this study demonstrated an understanding of the concept of CT and recognized its importance. However, several barriers were identified that hinder the implementation of CT in Saudi schools. Obstacles include the personality of students, the relationships between teachers and students, and teaching methods. The evidence from this study suggests that culture is perceived as one of the key barriers in implementing CT in the classroom. The study proposes changes in teaching methods courses offered in pre-service English programs and changing perceptions toward CT skills as possible measures to promote the development of CT skills in the classroom.

Investigating the importance of CT skills and how they are applied in teaching practices in higher education is vital to understanding how English lecturers, Saudi students and PSETs perceive this skill. The most important contribution of this study, in my view, is its specific intention to guide changes within Jouf University, by encouraging steps to be taken in improving the content of the English curriculum, and by tackling certain pedagogical issues in terms of cultural content and teaching practices. However, the broader aim is to raise greater awareness of the issue of CT skills among EFL students, and English teachers, in the Saudi context. This study has presented useful information to enrich other universities and provided a potential process for the enlightenment of the wider Saudi education system. In this respect, this paper will undoubtedly help to generate further research and influence the culture in general in Saudi Arabia, thereby facilitating the enhancement of CT in future generations. This research has provided a concrete contribution by presenting a set of challenges and recommendations regarding this issue. Therefore, the study may help decision-makers to identify the key priorities for achieving the National Vision 2030 and support the nation’s launch toward strengthening society.