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Abstract

National parks are increasingly recognized as attractive nature-based tourism destinations, playing an important role in tourism development in Vietnam. The study investigates the relationships between nature-based destination attractiveness, tourists’ satisfaction, perceived risk, and their revisit intention for Bach Ma National Park, central Vietnam, particularly in the context of COVID-19. Data were randomly collected from 308 domestic visitors who visited the park from December 2020 to May 2021, and structural equation modeling was performed to examine the relationships. The results of this study show that all six attributes of Bach Ma National Park, including natural, social, and cultural attractions, infrastructure, accessibility, prices, and services, had a significant positive effect on tourist satisfaction. Vietnamese tourists’ perceived risk associated with the pandemic had a significant negative impact on their satisfaction and a positive effect on their revisit intention. The findings from this study make a significant contribution to nature-based tourism literature, particularly towards effective marketing and management of national park-based tourism destination in Vietnam, notably with domestic tourists and in times of shocks such as COVID-19.

Plain language summary

Purpose: This study aims at exploring the relationships between nature-based destination attractiveness, tourists’ satisfaction, perceived risk, and their revisit intention for Bach Ma National Park, central Vietnam, particularly in the context of COVID-19. Methods: Data were randomly collected from 308 domestic visitors who visited the park from December 2020 to May 2021, and structural equation modeling was performed to examine the relationships. Conclusions: The results of this study show that all six attributes of Bach Ma National Park, including natural, social, and cultural attractions, infrastructure, accessibility, prices, and services, had a significant positive effect on tourist satisfaction. Vietnamese tourists’ perceived risk associated with the pandemic had a significant negative impact on their satisfaction and a positive effect on their revisit intention. Implications: The findings from this study make a significant contribution to nature-based tourism literature, particularly towards effective marketing and management of national park-based tourism destinations in Vietnam, notably with domestic tourists and in times of shocks such as COVID-19.

Keywords

destination attractiveness tourist satisfaction nature-based tourism perceived risk structural equation modeling Bach Ma National Park

Introduction

Nature-based tourism (NBT) denotes “any type of tourism that relies mainly on attractions directly related to the natural environment” (Weaver, 2001), and it is considered a sizable and expanding sector of the more significant tourism business (Balmford et al., 2009; O’Neill et al., 2010), particularly contributing to economic resilience in the post-pandemic era (Gupta et al., 2023). Most NBT destinations are designated wilderness areas or conservation zones as protected areas (Balmford et al., 2009; Das & Chatterjee, 2015; Spenceley et al., 2015), which are becoming more attractive to tourists. For example, global terrestrial protected areas attract about 8 billion visits each year, whereas national parks in the European region receive over 2 billion (Balmford et al., 2015; Schägner et al., 2016). Tourists visiting protected areas can bring potential benefits such as increased human health and well-being, funds for conservation, and a change in societal attitudes towards the environment and natural resources (Agyeman, Yeboah, & Ashie, 2019; An et al., 2018; de Oliveira et al., 2021; Frumkin et al., 2017; Gupta et al., 2023). The increasing awareness of these potential benefits has led policymakers, practitioners, and scholars to emphasize the importance of the development and management of nature-based tourism destinations, particularly in protected areas in developing countries (Agyeman, Yeboah, & Ashie, 2019; An et al., 2019; de Oliveira et al., 2021; Pamungkas & Jones, 2021; Suntikul et al., 2010).

In Vietnam, national parks (NPs) are protected areas within the national special-use forest system, which primarily serves to conserve ecosystems and biodiversity, protect landscapes and historical, cultural, and religious relics, and provide education, recreational opportunities, and forest environmental services (Government of Vietnam, 2017, 2018). They have drawn an increasing number of tourists visiting nature-based sites and seeking natural experiences due to their ecology, stunning scenic beauty, cultures, and ancient history. Every year, approximately 8% of international tourists who visit Vietnam participate in nature-based package excursions (Minh, 2016). The number of tourists who visited national parks has surged by more than 500% during the last decade (reaching 2.1 million people in 2015; An et al., 2019), and domestic tourists make up the majority of tourists.

The growth of NBT in Vietnam’s NPs also promotes better improvements in economic, social, and environmental advantages, for example, enhancing biodiversity conservation and protected area management funds; expanding environmental education; giving local people alternative livelihoods; and promoting local socioeconomic development (An et al., 2018; Bui et al., 2021; Minh, 2016; Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2014; Suntikul et al., 2010). Policymakers and managers of protected areas are focused on fostering the development of NBT destinations and their key tourist products (An et al., 2019; Government of Vietnam, 2013; Suntikul et al., 2010). However, numerous NPs in Vietnam lack a clear tourist strategic plan or action plan, as well as specific criteria for preserving the consistency of services and infrastructure in connection to the increasingly demanding needs of NBT (An et al., 2018; Bui et al., 2021). In this regard, investigating the attributes and characteristics of protected areas can provide insights into their potential value, allowing them to set priorities, strategies, and plans for NBT development in the country, particularly for enhancing tourism destination attractiveness and increasing the tourist flow to nature-based destinations.

The tourism attractiveness of a nature-based location is widely recognized as one of the most significant aspects of its tourism pull, consisting of the destination’s distinctive characteristics and features that make it attractive to tourists (An et al., 2019; Baloglu & Uysal, 1996; Cho, 2008; Islam & Chaudhary, 2021). In addition to psychology, tourism attractiveness expresses the sentiments, attitudes, and beliefs of tourists and consumers regarding the perceived potential of tourism destinations to meet a specific vacation requirement (Formica & Uysal, 2006; Hsu et al., 2009). Most studies in nature-based tourism destination attributes have focused on the behavior of tourists or customers, also known as a demand-side perspective, and tourism scholars and marketing professionals have shown considerable interest in the evaluation of destination characteristics (Hsu et al., 2009; Hu & Ritchie, 1993; H.-B. Kim, 1998; Lee et al., 2010). However, the understanding of the factors that drive the demand for NBT is still limited (Pham & Khanh, 2021). For NP managers to come up with good strategies and plans for managing NTB tourism and natural resources, it is vital to gain a deeper understanding of how visitors perceive tourism attractions in protected areas (An et al., 2019; Deng et al., 2002; Frost et al., 2014; Line & Costen, 2017; Suresh et al., 2022).

Furthermore, considering and evaluating the features of a tourism destination is vital for attracting and satisfying tourists, boosting the marketing and management of destinations and their competition (Agyeman, Aboagye, & Ashie, 2019; Caber et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2009; Taplin, 2012). With the increasing importance of NBT development in NPs, it is essential to comprehend tourists’ desires and satisfaction with the perceived attributes of a tourist destination (Marzuki et al., 2017; Suresh et al., 2022), as well as the factors affecting tourists’ intentions to return to a destination. For effective destination management and marketing, tourists’ views of a location’s desirability, their personal satisfaction, and their behavioral intentions are fundamental (Žabkar et al., 2010). In particular, nature-based tourism research has focused heavily on the linkages between quality dimensions, satisfaction, and the intention to revisit (Agyeman, Aboagye, & Ashie, 2019; Moore et al., 2015).

Limited extant literature exists on NBT destinations pertaining to NPs in Vietnam, particularly with respect to the evaluation of attractiveness attributes from the perspective of tourists. Such an assessment could lead to a better understanding of contentment among visitors and their likelihood of returning to NBT destinations. A few recent studies have investigated destination image, tourism intentions (Chi, 2022; Pham & Khanh, 2021), service attributes, and satisfaction at NBT sites (Thuy et al., 2020). Nevertheless, these empirical studies did not examine the relationships among each destination attribute, satisfaction, and revisit intention towards national parks. Thuy et al. (2020) also noted that there is a dearth of empirical research regarding the impacts of NBT destination attributes on Vietnamese visitor satisfaction.

The consideration of domestic tourism and factors influencing tourism behaviors at NBT sites in developing countries is largely ignored (Hadinejad et al., 2019; Tešin et al., 2020). In this regard, the present study contributes to the significance of comprehending the developmental state of NBT and promoting effective strategies for NBT, particularly in terms of positioning national park destinations and niche markets, such as Vietnamese visitors in the niche market of tourism. In addition, during the COVID-19 pandemic, when international travel was restricted to prevent its spread, many developing countries, such as Vietnam, encouraged domestic tourists to explore their own destinations to recover and grow the tourism industry. The apprehensions of tourists regarding the safety and risks associated with a destination can impact their travel behavior. For instance, the perceived level of risk among tourists towards the pandemic can affect their travel choices and their inclination to revisit a particular destination in the future (Perić et al., 2021; Şengel et al., 2022). However, empirical research on the impact of risk perceptions on domestic tourists’ satisfaction and revisit intention regarding NBT destinations is scarce, particularly in Vietnamese NPs during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In view of these gaps, this study aims to explore relationships among nature-based tourism attractiveness attributes, tourists’ perceived risks and satisfaction, and their intention to revisit NPs in Vietnam by applying factor analysis and structural equation modeling approaches. The present research takes Bach Ma NP as an example of a nature-based tourism destination, with a focus on the prevalence of Vietnamese tourists, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the following research questions are addressed: (1) what NP attributes affect tourist satisfaction; (2) how does tourist satisfaction affect tourist intention to revisit the Bach Ma NP; and (3) how does tourists’ perceived COVID-19 risk affect their satisfaction and revisit intention to the park? The findings of this study will contribute to the NBT literature by understanding attractive attributes driving tourist satisfaction as well as links between tourists’ perceived risk, satisfaction, and intention to revisit protected area destinations. More specifically, the results will contribute to the literature on NBT development and nature-based tourism behavior in developing countries such as Vietnam. The study’s results will provide useful information to tourism policymakers, tour operators, travel agents, and national park managers on appropriate tourism management of protected areas.

The subsequent sections of this paper are structured in the following manner: The next section provides a literature review and hypothesis development with respect to nature-based destination attractiveness, tourist satisfaction, revisit intention, and perceived risk. The methodology, including study site description, survey design and measurement development, data collection, and analysis, is presented in Section “Methodology”. Sections “Results” and “Discussion” present the empirical results and discussion, respectively. Lastly, Section “Conclusions” presents the concluding remarks.

Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

Attributes Determining Nature-Based Destination Attractiveness

In recent decades, tourism policymakers, scholars, and practitioners have paid significant attention to the notion and measurement of destination attractiveness (An et al., 2019; de Castro et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2002; Formica & Uysal, 2006; Hsu et al., 2009; H.-B. Kim, 1998; Lee et al., 2010; Mayo & Jarvis, 1981; Reitsamer et al., 2016). The attractiveness of a travel destination refers to the perceptions of tourists about an area and its ability to satisfy their needs (Mayo & Jarvis, 1981). There is no commonly agreed-upon list of attributes that determine the attraction of a destination (Medina-Muñoz & Medina-Muñoz, 2014). In other words, numerous characteristics and attributes of tourist destinations or tourist products affect the incentive to visit a destination and to enjoy it (An et al., 2019; Buhalis, 2000; H.-B. Kim, 1998; Lee et al., 2010; Reitsamer et al., 2016). The significance of each element varies between destinations. For instance, scenery, climate, availability/quality of accommodations, local people’s attitudes towards tourists, the uniqueness of the local way of life, and historical attractions were the most important factors determining a destination’s perceived attraction (Hu & Ritchie, 1993).

In previous research on nature-based tourism destinations, a range of a destination’s characteristics have been accepted and categorized according to the destination’s attractiveness (An et al., 2019; de Castro et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2010). For example, Deng et al. (2002) divide the attributes of NPs into five categories: tourism resources (e.g., natural and cultural resources), tourist facilities (e.g., educational and recreational facilities), accessibility (e.g., internal and external access), local communities (e.g., cultural and social aspects), and peripheral attractions (e.g., number and importance). In the context of a forest-based destination, four major components’ attributes are identified for determining the destination’s attractiveness: tourist attractions (e.g., forest landscapes and scenery and historical structures), accessibility (e.g., road and railway transportation), amenities (e.g., quality accommodation and food), and complementary services (e.g., visitor centers and medical care systems; Lee et al., 2010). Besides defining factors establishing destination attractiveness, expert interviews, panel data, and secondary data analysis have been used in most investigations (Reitsamer et al., 2016). In particular, most studies examine nature-based tourist demand and tourism behavior when analyzing the attractive features of a destination that attract, motivate, and satisfy tourists (Lee et al., 2009, 2010; Line & Costen, 2017; Reitsamer et al., 2016). However, in NBT research in Vietnam, exploring the perspective of relevant stakeholders, more specifically domestic tourists, is still scarce to NP destination attractiveness. Thus, this study investigates the views of Vietnamese tourists on the attractiveness of NP destinations when they visit these sites.

Moreover, each attribute of a NBT destination contributes a different amount of importance to the destination’s attractiveness (An et al., 2019; Deng et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2010). For instance, forest landscapes and scenery attributes are the most important contributors to the attractiveness of a forest-based tourism destination (Lee et al., 2010). A variety of flora and fauna, scenery and landscape quality, climatic phenomena, outdoor activities, price, travel time spending, safety, accessibility, information services and convenience facilities, and community conditions are the most important attributes for these tourists when selecting a nature-based destination (Hsu et al., 2009; Naidoo & Adamowicz, 2005; Suresh et al., 2022). A better understanding of nature-based destination attributes allows a destination to be able to not only enhance effective management of protected areas but also promote specific types of tourist products and experiences, as well as attract and satisfy visitors to protected areas. In particular, to develop effective marketing strategies and management of NBT destinations, as well as to increase nature-based tourist experiences, expectations, satisfaction, and loyalty, it is crucial to comprehend how tourists evaluate destination attributes in relation to their satisfaction (Agyeman, Aboagye, & Ashie, 2019; Cheng et al., 2022; Pinkus et al., 2016; Thuy et al., 2020). However, the effect of destination characteristics on visitor satisfaction at protected area destinations is largely ignored (Agyeman, Aboagye, & Ashie, 2019; Oviedo-García et al., 2019), especially in Vietnamese NPs such as Bach Ma NP.

In the context of NBT management and development, prior research has looked at the link between tourist satisfaction and destination attributes (Moon & Han, 2018; Yoon et al., 2010; Žabkar et al., 2010). Thus, this present study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Destination attractive attributes of Bach Ma National Park will positively influence tourist satisfaction

However, a NP-based destination encompasses a variety of attributes that establish its attractiveness and affect visitor satisfaction. Based on the prior authors (Agyeman, Aboagye, & Ashie, 2019; Eusébio & Vieira, 2013; Moon & Han, 2018; Yoon et al., 2010; Žabkar et al., 2010), the present study adopts multiple attributes of Bach Ma NP destination, that is, natural, social, and cultural attractions, infrastructure, accessibility, tourism services, and prices, to capture Vietnamese tourists’ perceived attractiveness, which will build up tourists’ satisfaction. A NP destination’s natural attributes, such as biodiversity, landscapes, and scenery, are recognized as the most fundamental element in tourism attractiveness and attracting visitors to a nature-based tourism location (Islam & Chaudhary, 2021; Lee et al., 2010). Social and cultural dimensions influence tourists’ recreation experiences, such as the organization of events in the destination, communication with local people, and exploration of their culture (Lee et al., 2010; Moon & Han, 2018). Infrastructure refers to established tourism amenities and system conditions that tourists can use to satisfy their basic needs (Lee et al., 2010). Within protected areas, recreational facilities allow for a variety of outdoor recreation activities, such as walking and trekking (An et al., 2019). Accessibility, including both internal and external access (Deng et al., 2002), has been recognized as a major pull-factor in destination attractiveness that influences visitors’ decisions to visit protected areas (S. S. Kim et al., 2003). The provision of tourism products or services is acknowledged to play a significant role in encouraging travelers to seek out recreational experiences (Reitsamer et al., 2016). The quality of tourism services supplied in protected areas has the greatest impact on tourist satisfaction (Žabkar et al., 2010). Moreover, price attributes are recognized as an important element when evaluating the attractiveness of a tourism destination and selecting a travel destination, as well as contributing to tourist satisfaction (Eusébio & Vieira, 2013; Hsu et al., 2009; Hu & Ritchie, 1993). Therefore, the first hypothesis (H1) in this present research can be divided into:

Hypothesis 1a (H1a): Natural attractions of the national park will positively influence tourist satisfaction

Hypothesis 1b (H1b): Social and cultural attractions of the national park will positively influence tourist satisfaction

Hypothesis 1c (H1c): Infrastructure of the national park will positively influence tourist satisfaction

Hypothesis 1d (H1d): Prices of the national park will positively influence tourist satisfaction

Hypothesis 1e (H1e): Services of the national park will positively influence tourist satisfaction

Hypothesis 1f (H1f): Accessibility of the national park will positively influence tourist satisfaction

Tourist Satisfaction and Revisit Intention

Satisfaction is related to a good reaction stemming from a positive judgement of the consumer experience (Oliver, 1980) or the degree of congruence between a person’s desired and actual experience (Pinkus et al., 2016). Tourist satisfaction is the extent to which a traveler’s opinion of a location’s attributes meets his or her expectations (Tribe & Snaith, 1998), and it influences behavioral intentions (Cheng et al., 2022; Moon & Han, 2018; Oviedo-García et al., 2017; Žabkar et al., 2010). In particular, understanding relationships between tourist satisfaction and behavioral intentions is crucial for the success of a tourism destination’s marketing and development strategies (Eusébio & Vieira, 2013). However, identifying links between satisfaction and behavioural intentions in the context of NBT remains neglected in various geographical areas (Oviedo-García et al., 2019), particularly in different contexts such as the COVID-19 pandemic. In light of this, the present study contributes to shedding light on the relationship between behavioural intention and satisfaction of Vietnamese visitors in Vietnamese NPs.

In accordance with previous nature-based tourism investigations, tourist satisfaction has a significant influence on their likelihood of revisiting a tourist destination (e.g., Eusébio & Vieira, 2013; Pinkus et al., 2016). Revisit intention, a component of behavioural intentions, relates to a customer’s intent to re-experience the same product or tourist location (Gohary et al., 2020). Tourists’ revisit intention is also a crucial component of post-consumer behavior and loyalty (Oviedo-García et al., 2019; Pinkus et al., 2016; Yoon et al., 2010; Žabkar et al., 2010). In this sense, when tourists are satisfied with their purchases, they are more likely to repurchase them or revisit a tourist destination (Cheng et al., 2022; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2021). This present study formulates the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Tourists’ satisfaction will positively influence their intention to revisit the national park

Interrelationships Among Perceived COVID-19 Risk, Tourist Satisfaction, and Revisit Intention

Risk perception is typically used to define an individual’s attitude and judgement towards risk-related events and their social and cultural surroundings (Adam, 2015; Cui et al., 2016). In the area of tourism, risks are mostly viewed as undesirable outcomes that may occur during travel, for example, physical, health, personal, and psychological risks (Hasan et al., 2017). Tourists are most inclined to focus on threats that affect their sense of safety and security (Isaac, 2021; Rittichainuwat & Chakraborty, 2009). In particular, perceived risks in different tourism contexts have become a central issue in predicting tourists’ behavior and decision-making processes (Cui et al., 2016; Floyd & Pennington-Gray, 2004; Hasan et al., 2017; Isaac, 2021; Karl, 2018; Lu, 2021; Perić et al., 2021; Reichel et al., 2009; Şengel et al., 2022; Sohn et al., 2016; Zaman et al., 2022). Although the relationships between risk perceptions, tourists’ satisfaction, and their intention to return to a destination have been studied in the past, these relationships have rarely been investigated in the context of nature-based domestic tourism in the COVID-19 pandemic, more specifically in Vietnam NPs.

Since 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has substantially influenced many global industries, particularly tourism and travel (Abbas et al., 2021; UN, 2020). Studies in tourism psychology and behavior have paid a great deal of attention to risk perception regarding COVID-19 (Abraham et al., 2021; Sánchez-Cañizares et al., 2021; Zaman et al., 2022). Concerns about health concerns or the probability of catching an infectious disease have influenced travelers’ behavior and destination selection (Chinazzi et al., 2020; Şengel et al., 2022). Different research has shown that tourists’ risk perceptions affect their travel behavior and future plans to revisit a location (Isaac, 2021; Karl, 2018; Lu, 2021; Perić et al., 2021; Rittichainuwat & Chakraborty, 2009; Şengel et al., 2022). However, there is a limited understanding of tourists’ decision-making process and intention behavior in disease and pandemic-related scenarios (Chaudhary & Islam, 2021; Sánchez-Cañizares et al., 2021). There is also no work examining the relationship between tourists’ perceived COVID-19 risks and their intention to revisit nature-based destinations in Vietnam, specifically national parks.

In a variety of tourism and sociocultural situations, previous scholars have discovered that tourists’ perceptions of travel risk have a negative impact on their intention to return to tourist destinations (Chaudhary & Islam, 2021; Hasan et al., 2017). Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed in the study:

Hypothesis 3 (H3): Tourists’ perceived COVID-19 risk negatively influences their intention to revisit the national park

The connection between tourists’ risk perceptions and satisfaction is widely examined (e.g., Hasan et al., 2017; Viet et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2022). However, little information has focused on perceived risk impacts on domestic tourists’ satisfaction in a nature-based tourism context in Southeast Asia, particularly in Vietnamese NPs during the COVID-19 pandemic period. Investigating the link between tourists’ risk perceptions and their satisfaction contributes to predicting the future behavior of tourists/consumers (Hasan et al., 2017; Sohn et al., 2016). In this respect, earlier studies discovered that the risks encountered by visitors had a detrimental effect on their satisfaction (Chaudhary & Islam, 2021; Viet et al., 2020). In other words, if tourists perceive increased degrees of risk at a travel destination, their level of satisfaction will decrease. Therefore, in this study, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 4 (H4): Tourists’ perceived COVID-19 risk positively influences tourist satisfaction

Figure 1 presents the conceptual model for this present study, which is based on the existing literature and the aforementioned hypotheses.

Figure 1.

Hypothetical model of the study.

Methodology

Bach Ma National Park as a Site Study

The study area is Bach Ma National Park, located in central Vietnam (Figure 2). In 1991, the park was established to protect Vietnam’s only green corridor from the South China Sea to the Annamite Mountains. Tropical monsoon forests can be found in lowland sections of the Bach Ma, and subtropical monsoon forests can be found between 900 and 1,450 m in altitude (Tran & Ziegler, 2001). With 2,373 plant species and 2,115 animal species, the protected area is acknowledged as one of the most essential locations for biodiversity conservation in Vietnam (Keo & An, 2011) and a vital floristic biodiversity core for the Indochina region (Tran & Ziegler, 2001). According to the Government of Vietnam (2008), the Bach Ma NP comprises 37,487 ha, divided into strictly protected (12,064.8 ha), ecological restoration (20,234 ha), and administrative service areas (5,188.2 ha). About 58,676 ha are an area of the park buffer zone that is inhabited by 15 communes where four ethnic groups live (Kinh, Cơ Tu, Vân Kiều, and Mường).

Figure 2.

Map of Bach Ma National Park, Central Vietnam.

In the NBT development context, the number of tourists visiting the park has risen 1.6 times over the past 10 years, reaching 14,852 visitors in 2015 (An et al., 2018). In particular, the park received 33,700 visitors (domestic visitors constitute 65% of the total) in 2019 (Bach Ma National Park, 2021), an increase of 2.3 times compared with 2015. However, because of COVID-19 outbreaks and control measures in the country, Bach Ma only received 16,170 visitors in 2020, who were mainly domestic tourists (approximately 15,674 tourists). In addition to adapting to the COVID-19 context in 2021, the Vietnamese government and its related bodies recognized domestic tourism as a target in recovering the country’s tourism sector under “Safe Tourism—Full Experience” (TITC, 2021). Hence, we focus on Vietnamese tourists visiting the Bach Ma NP in this present study.

Questionnaire Design and Measurement Development

The qualitative research technique was used to carry out the procedures for this research. Based on the aforementioned literature analysis and theoretical notion (Figure 1), a three-part structured questionnaire was designed, and the contents of the questionnaire were developed as a guarantee of validity for primary data collection among Vietnamese tourists visiting the Bach Ma National Park. The research questionnaire was initially formatted in English before being translated by two qualified translators into Vietnamese in order to assure its accuracy. Before conducting the official questionnaire survey, the questions were modified based on feedback from discussions and pilot test surveys to ensure clarity and readability of the contents as well as to fix the present research context. The questionnaire was discussed with three tourism experts and four relevant academicians, 10 tour guides from travel agencies located in Thua Thien Hue Province, and pretested with 24 Vietnamese tourists visiting Bach Ma National Park in December 2020. There are three components to the questionnaire’s structure: general trip information (e.g., tourists’ main purpose of travel, number of visitors to the park, and organizational types); key information related to the proposed hypotheses of this research; and social-demographic questions of the respondents.

Regarding the proposed hypotheses, the measurement items utilized in this study were derived from prior research (Agyeman, Aboagye, & Ashie, 2019; Eusébio & Vieira, 2013; Floyd & Pennington-Gray, 2004; Moon & Han, 2018; Oviedo-García et al., 2017; Reichel et al., 2009; Yoon et al., 2010; Žabkar et al., 2010). Following consultation with the specialists, relevant academics, tourist guides, and a pilot poll, items were amended for consistency with the context of the research. Finally, 35 items were chosen for the study to capture national park attributes, tourist satisfaction, perceived COVID-19 risk, and intention to revisit the Bach Ma NP. All measurement items are listed in Appendix A (Table A1). All items were evaluated on a 5-point Likert agreement scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) for this study.

Data Collection and Sample

Using a self-administered structured questionnaire, the primary data was acquired from Vietnamese tourists who visited Bach Ma National Park. The target population consisted of domestic visitors older than 18 years. The questionnaires were delivered at random to tourists during their visit to the park. Between December 2020 and May 2021, trained research assistants conducted the survey. Research assistants approached visitors as they passed by on main trails and waited at rest areas, inviting them to fill out a questionnaire survey. Visitors who agreed to participate were given questionnaires and asked to fill them out and return them the same day. Respondents were informed that the goal of the survey was to provide useful feedback to protected area management and NBT development in an effort to boost tourist satisfaction and their intent to return to the national park. Additionally, we ensured the confidentiality and anonymity of all survey participants.

The sample size based on the number of measurement items should be 10 times the number of items, or at least five times the number of items to be studied (Hair et al., 2010). With 35 items to measure, this study planned to survey a total of 350 tourists as a sample. In the study, 350 questionnaires were distributed for the formal survey among Vietnamese tourists on their arrival at Bach Ma National Park. After taking out the questionnaires with missing information, 308 valid responses were used in the analysis.

Data Analysis

The data were validated and imported for study analysis into IBM SPSS 20.0 and AMOS 20.0. Descriptive analyses were performed using SPSS 20.0. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed in order to detect subdimensions in measurement items. Using a principal axis factoring method and promax rotation for analysis, only items with factor loadings of at least .40 were preserved (Child, 1990). In order to test the hypotheses presented in this study, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were performed with AMOS 20.0. The convergent and discriminant validity of the model were further verified through the composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) (Hair et al., 2010; Schumacker & Lomax, 2010).

Results

Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics

The demographic information for the sample of tourists who participated in the study is shown in Table 1. Of the 308 respondents, approximately 59% were male. The sample of respondents was skewed towards youth (average age of 32) and higher education (82% college or university graduation). During the COVID-19 epidemic, the largest Vietnamese participants reported personal net monthly incomes ranging from VND4,000,000–6,000,000 (US$174–261) (34%).

Table 1.

Respondent’s Sociodemographic Characteristics.

Characteristics	Category	Frequency (N = 308)	Percentage
Sex	Male	182	59,09
Sex	Female	126	40,91
Age	20 and under years	13	4.22
	21–30 years	157	50.97
	31–40 years	87	28.25
	41–50 years	37	12.01
	51–60 years	11	3.57
	Above 60 years	3	0.97
Education	High school graduate or less	55	17.86
	College/university	214	69.48
	Master/PhD	39	12.66
Occupation	Student	31	10.06
	Teacher/professions	56	18.18
	Civil servant	69	22.40
	Office worker	48	15.58
	Business related	88	28.57
	Other	16	5.19
Monthly income level (VND)^†	Less than VND4,000,000 (<US$174)	31	10.06
	VND4,000,000–6,000,000 (US$174–261)	106	34.42
	VND6,000,000–8,000,000 (US$261–348)	69	22.40
	VND8,000,000–10,000,000 (US$348–435)	37	12.01
	Above VND10,000,000 (>US$435)	65	21.10

Note.^†US$1 was approximately equal to VND23,000 as the time of the survey.

Factor Analyses

Exploratory factor analysis was performed to identify the research’s factors, and items with factor loadings below .40 were eliminated. It was discovered that the values of each loading factor were higher than .50 and the eigenvalue of each factor was higher than 1. The Cronbach’s alpha values for each scale from the reliability analysis were all above .7 (Table 2). The results are in accordance with the standards suggested by Child (1990) and Hair et al. (2010).

Table 2.

Items of the Measurement Model and Measures of Reliability and Convergent Validity.

Constructs	Item	Indicator	Mean	SD	Cronbach’s alpha	Loadings	CR	AVE
Natural attractions (NAT)	NAT2	Comfortable/good climate	4.17	0.792	.868	.807	0.869	0.528
	NAT5	Uniqueness and healthy condition of water	4.08	0.744		.785
	NAT6	Uniqueness of various altitudes/terrain	4.03	0.726		.754
	NAT1	Scenery/natural/landscape wonders	4.28	0.679		.699
	NAT3	The park has varied and unique fauna	3.89	0.713		.673
	NAT4	The park has varied and unique flora	3.84	0.514		.603
Social and cultural attractions (SOC)	SOC2	Diversity of local cuisine/culinary culture	2.87	0.690	.886	.825	0.870	0.574
	SOC4	A variety of opportunities to experience local way of production activities/life	2.61	0.721		.781
	SOC1	Interesting special events/programs in the destination	2.90	0.739		.777
	SOC3	Chance to experience local culture	2.80	0.793		.748
	SOC5	A variety of local products/brands in local shops	2.55	0.695		.618
Infrastructure (INF)	INF1	Good availability of tourism information on the park/tourist centers	3.17	0.728	.835	.793	0.837	0.507
	INF3	Well-designed and maintained walking trails/roads inside the national park	3.19	0.663		.735
	INF4	Uniqueness of designed infrastructure	3.16	0.645		.716
	INF5	High quality of infrastructure	3.06	0.631		.640
	INF2	Clear, well-presented and maintained signage/directions	3.15	0.676		.632
Accessibility (ACC)	ACC2	Ease of traveling other destinations around the national park	3.71	0.624	.775	.817	0.777	0.538
	ACC3	Convenience in accessing the national park	3.82	0.677		.720
	ACC1	Ease of traveling other destinations in the national park	3.30	0.628		.677
Services (SER)	SER2	Impressive service provided by service staff	3.58	0.643	.784	.966	0.788	0.554
	SER1	The brochures/maps/guides/useful information on the park were well prepared	3.10	0.657		.593
	SER3	The offer of recreational activities and services in the park is abundant	3.28	0.661		.531
Prices (PRI)	PRI1	The price of food/restaurant services is good	3.36	0.754	.796	.877	0.801	0.574
	PRI3	The price of transportation services is good	3.27	0.637		.725
	PRI2	The price of accommodation/hotel services is good	3.19	0.686		.653
Tourist satisfaction (SAT)	SAT1	Overall, I am satisfied with this visit	4.24	0.767	.815	.794	0.818	0.602
	SAT3	My overall evaluation of this destination is positive	3.94	0.880		.724
	SAT2	Overall, I am happy with this visit	4.01	0.884		.717
Perceived risk (PR)	PR1	Travelling to natural areas such as national parks is not risky	3.14	0.744	.840	.824	0.844	0.644
	PR2	I worry about COVID-19 infection at the destination	3.19	0.847		.781
	PR3	I worry about some unexpected expenses at the destination because of COVID-19	3.28	0.850		.765
Intention to revisit the park (IR)	IR1	I intend to revisit this destination in the future	3.30	0.878	.866	.906	0.869	0.624
	IR3	It is very likely that I will come back to this place in the future	3.22	0.760		.803
	IR4	Bach Ma could be again my next vacation place	3.18	0.788		.707
	IR2	I am willing to return to this destination in the future	3.35	0.790		.706

Note. SD = standard deviation; CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted.

The findings of the conducted CFA showed that the measurement model fit for the data has appropriate Chi-square (χ²) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) indices: χ² = 959.488, df = 524, Normed χ² (CMIN/DF) = 1.831 (<3) with p = .000, and RMSEA = 0.052 (<0.08), which meet the criteria recommended by Hair et al. (2010) and Schumacker and Lomax (2010). Additionally, other fit indices are all higher than the threshold of 0.90: Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.913, Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.901, and Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 0.914. All of the factor loadings were higher than the threshold of .50 (Table 2).

The validity and reliability of the measurement model are checked using CR, AVE, and discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2010). The standardized regression weights for each item were found to be above .50. Each factor’s CR and AEV values were higher than 0.70 and 0.50, respectively (Table 2). The results indicated the evident convergent validity of the model. Additionally, discriminatory validity was checked by considering correlations between components and the square root of AVE (Table 3). The correlations between components were smaller than the values of AVE, which showed that discriminatory validity was satisfied. Therefore, the proposed model in this study is valid and reliable, making it acceptable for examining structural links.

Table 3.

Discriminant Validity of the Measurement Model.

Construct	ACC	NAT	SOC	INF	IR	PR	PRI	SER	SAT
ACC	.733
NAT	.288	.727
SOC	.080	.126	.758
INF	.235	.269	.260	.712
IR	.201	.131	.506	.335	.790
PR	.156	.112	.316	.386	.361	.802
PRI	.270	.332	.087	.418	.317	.398	.758
SER	.224	.435	.221	.299	.271	.199	.426	.744
SAT	.375	.515	.232	.395	.365	.151	.527	.650	.776

Note. The diagonal is the square root of the extracted average variance (in bold) of the latent variables and represents the highest value in any column or raw. ACC = accessibility; NAT = natural attractions; SOC = social and cultural attractions; INF = infrastructure; IR = intention to revisit the park; PR = perceived risk; PRI = prices; SER = services; SAT = tourist satisfaction.

Structural Equation Model

After confirming the reliability and validity of the model, the study’s hypotheses were tested by verifying the structural model using the maximum likelihood method and bootstrapping (5,000 re-samples) with 95% confidence intervals. Additionally, standardized regression weights (SRW), crucial ratios, and significance levels were used to identify the effects in the model. It was found that the structural model (Figure 3) fits the data reasonably well, with the following acceptable indices: χ² = 1,076.033, df = 536, Normed χ² = 2.008 (<3) with p = .000 (Hair et al., 2010), GFI = 0.834, NFI = 0.808 (>0.8) (Baumgartner & Homburg, 1996; Doll et al., 1994; Hooper et al., 2008), TLI = 0.881, CFI = 0.892 (close to 0.9), and RMSEA = 0.057 (<0.08) (Schumacker & Lomax, 2010). The results explained 62.7% of the variance in tourist satisfaction and 20.8% of the variance in revisit intention.

Figure 3.

Standardized coefficient of SEM model.

All of the estimated paths in the structural model were statistically significant (Table 4). In addition, most signs of the paths between constructs were in accordance with hypothesized relationships, except for the association between tourists’ perceived COVID-19 risk and revisit intention (Hypothesis 3). Different attributes of the Bach Ma NP were found to be positively significant on tourist satisfaction, thus supporting H1a, H1b, H1c, H1d, H1e, and H1f. More specifically, six elements of the destination’s attractiveness had a significant effect on tourist satisfaction: (H1a) natural attractions (SRW = 0.171, p < .01), (H1b) social and cultural attractions (SRW = 0.123, p < .05), (H1c) infrastructure (SRW = 0.105, p < .1), (H1d) prices (SRW = 0.243, p < .01), (H1e) services (SRW = 0.384, p < .01), and (H1f) accessibility (SRW = 0.149, p < .01). Moreover, tourist satisfaction (SRW = 0.371, p < .001) and perceived COVID-19 risk (SRW = 0.318, p < .01) were found to significantly predict Vietnamese tourists’ intentions to revisit the Bach Ma, thus supporting H2 and H3. Finally, perceived COVID-19 risk had a significant effect on tourist satisfaction (SRW = −0.129, p < .01), thus supporting H4.

Table 4.

Results of Hypothesis Testing.

Hypothesis	Relationship		Expected sign		SRW		CR	p-Value	Result
H1a	NAT	→	SAT	+	0.171	0.055	2.905	.004***	Supported
H1b	SOC	→	SAT	+	0.123	0.057	2.347	.019**	Supported
H1c	INF	→	SAT	+	0.105	0.070	1.749	.080*	Supported
H1d	PRI	→	SAT	+	0.243	0.064	3.674	.000***	Supported
H1e	SER	→	SAT	+	0.384	0.085	5.455	.000***	Supported
H1f	ACC	→	SAT	+	0.149	0.072	2.610	.009***	Supported
H2	SAT	→	IR	+	0.371	0.077	5.675	.000***	Supported
H3	PR	→	IR	—	0.318	0.075	4.909	.000***	Supported
H4	PR	→	SAT	—	−0.129	0.049	−2.600	.009***	Supported

Note. SRW = standardized regression weight; SE = standardized estimation; CR = critical ratio; ACC = accessibility; NAT = natural attractions; SOC = social and cultural attractions; INF = infrastructure; IR = intention to revisit the park; PR = perceived risk; PRI = prices; SER = services; SAT = tourist satisfaction.

***

, **, and * indicate statistical significance p < .01, .05, and .1 respectively

Discussion

Nature-based tourism has become a key product in fostering the tourism industry and contributing to national development in Vietnam (Government of Vietnam, 2013). Thereby, this present study provides new insights into links between nature-based destination features, visitor satisfaction, perceived COVID-19 risk, and the intention to revisit Bach Ma National Park, central Vietnam, particularly from the perspective of Vietnamese tourists during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings contribute to advance knowledge not only on the NBT literature on destination attractiveness, satisfaction, perceived risks, and intention behaviors of tourists visiting NBT destinations, specifically in Vietnamese NPs, but also on effective planning, marketing, and management strategies of NP-based tourism destinations in developing countries like Vietnam.

In this study, all proposed attributes of the Bach Ma were found to have a significant positive effect on tourist satisfaction. This is in line with the findings of previous studies that the natural, social, and cultural attractions, infrastructure, accessibility, prices, and services of a NBT destination have a positive effect on tourist satisfaction (Agyeman, Aboagye, & Ashie, 2019; Eusébio & Vieira, 2013; Pinkus et al., 2016; Thuy et al., 2020; Žabkar et al., 2010). However, each dimension of tourism’s attractiveness contributed in a different way to the satisfaction of tourists visiting the park (Table 4). The results support the findings of Lee et al. (2010), An et al. (2019), and Islam and Chaudhary (2021), who found that the attractive attributes of a NBT destination are not equally important. Contrary to Eusébio and Vieira (2013) and Agyeman, Aboagye, and Ashie (2019), natural attractions and socio-cultural characteristics, such as scenery and cultural attractions, were not considered to be the most important to tourist satisfaction. This suggests that it is necessary to further consider the motivations and experiences of Vietnamese tourists towards satisfaction when visiting NBT destinations. Even the longer time tourists spend at NBT destinations might increase satisfaction with destination attractiveness (Cheng et al., 2022). Although infrastructure and accessibility display a positive effect on tourists’ satisfaction, which supports prior research (Eusébio & Vieira, 2013; Oviedo-García et al., 2019), they have a weak influence on satisfaction, particularly tourism infrastructure in the destination. This partly reflects the concerns of protected areas in Vietnam in terms of financial investment to improve their infrastructure and attract tourist flows to NP destinations (An et al., 2018, 2019). In many cases, tourists who came to appreciate the natural scenery or for recreation at nature-based destinations were more satisfied with the tourism infrastructure, activities, and reasonable prices than those visiting for other reasons (Cheng et al., 2022).

Furthermore, the present study’s findings showed that reasonable prices and services for tourists appear to be the most important of the destination attributes affecting visitor satisfaction. This is in line with Moore et al. (2015), Pinkus et al. (2016), and Cheng et al. (2022), who found that tourist product and service quality, activities, and price reasonableness in NBT destinations had a significant effect on visitor satisfaction. In the context of NBT development in Vietnam, a lack of tourism services and amenities has been a major issue for most Vietnamese NPs (An et al., 2019). These obstacles can negatively affect tourists’ satisfaction when visiting protected areas. Even inappropriately designed and performed services towards the NBT implementation in destinations impact destination attractiveness, tourist experiences, and satisfaction (Thuy et al., 2020). In this sense, financial allocations and investment for NBT-related services and facilities should be considered agreeably in priority development strategies and management of protected areas in order to increase visitor satisfaction and attract tourists to protected areas. In addition, offering affordable prices for tourists visiting destinations plays an important role not only in increasing tourist satisfaction but also in fostering competition between destinations (Eusébio & Vieira, 2013; Hsu et al., 2009; Islam & Chaudhary, 2021; Viet et al., 2020; Yoon et al., 2010). To sum up, understanding each notable characteristic of NBT destinations in relation to tourist satisfaction can provide useful information for protected area administrations, destination marketing organizations, and tour operators in setting their priority plans and management to increase the satisfaction of tourists and contribute to successful NBT destination management and the long-term sustainability of protected areas (Cheng et al., 2022; Oviedo-García et al., 2019; Thuy et al., 2020).

The results of the study indicate that the satisfaction of tourists had a significantly positive effect on their intention to revisit Bach Ma National Park (Figure 1, Table 4). Tourists who visit the park with high levels of satisfaction are more likely to return to the area. It was similar to the finding of previous research, which confirmed that tourists’ intentions to return to nature-based tourism destinations increased with their satisfaction (Cheng et al., 2022; Pinkus et al., 2016; Žabkar et al., 2010). In particular, increasing tourist satisfaction is considered a priority strategy for tourism marketing and managers of protected areas in the midst of COVID-19 (Zhou et al., 2022). In addition to that, in conjunction with sustainable NBT management in protected areas, the pursuit of tourist satisfaction promotes future revisit behavioural intentions as well as positive word-of-mouth recommendations to others (Oviedo-García et al., 2019; Pinkus et al., 2016).

Our study confirms that COVID-19 risks perceived by Vietnamese tourists visiting Bach Ma NP had a considerable detrimental impact on visitor satisfaction. The higher the risk that tourists perceive in a NBT destination during the COVID-19 pandemic, the lower their satisfaction, which is consistent with the findings of Zhou et al. (2022). It is in line with prior research on the significant opposite connection between perceived risks and tourist satisfaction (Chaudhary & Islam, 2021; Hasan et al., 2017; Karl, 2018; Viet et al., 2020). In Vietnam, COVID-19 outbreaks and their intervention measures have increased people’s perceived risks (Le et al., 2020), particularly psychological effects on travelers, including travel risks and anxieties related to the pandemic. Even dangerously extended misinformation about COVID-19 leads to the spread of dread alongside the disease (Lăzăroiu & Adams, 2020; Lăzăroiu et al., 2020). These potential risks related to safety and socio-psychological concerns will create the negative emotions in tourists, thus creating dissatisfaction when travelling to or at destinations. Additionally, discrimination among tourists when visiting a tourism destination may occur in the context of fear of being infected with COVID-19. Therefore, tourism decision makers and destination managers should use appropriate channels, such as social media, to promote the safety and quality of tourist products and destinations in order to minimize tourists’ potential risk perceptions (Sánchez-Cañizares et al., 2021). If travelers adopt and adhere to personal prevention measures and tourism authorities and destination managers provide suitable solutions or recompense for them, this might enhance tourist satisfaction (Zhou et al., 2022).

It was found in the present study that tourists’ perceived COVID-19 risk had a significant impact on their intentions to revisit the Bach Ma NP. Unexpectedly, the COVID-19 risk indicated a positive impact on the intention to revisit the national park, that is, an increase in the COVID-19 risk perception of tourists promotes the chance of their intentions to return. This is in contrast to the findings of previous studies (e.g., Chaudhary & Islam, 2021; Hasan et al., 2017; Perić et al., 2021; Viet et al., 2020), which found that perceived risk has a substantial detrimental impact on tourists’ intentions to revisit tourism destinations. However, our present result can support the findings of Lu (2021), who found that higher perceived socio-psychological risks for tourists can significantly increase their intention to revisit destinations in Taiwan. It is also important to note that the perceived hazards could vary from time to time and from one location to another, so not all visitors would be exposed to the same risks (Hasan et al., 2017). This implies that further investigation is required to determine whether these different findings are attributable to the specificity of the destination as well as the context of the case studies. For example, risk perceptions of tourists are influenced by individual characteristics such as age group, educational background, travel time, and travel experiences (Abraham et al., 2021; Chaudhary & Islam, 2021; Karl, 2018; Perić et al., 2021; Rittichainuwat & Chakraborty, 2009).

Conclusions

The focus of the present study is on the viewpoints of Vietnamese tourists regarding a nature-based tourism destination like Bach Ma National Park in Vietnam. The study explores the relationships between the attractive attributes of Bach Ma NP, tourists’ satisfaction, perceived risk, and their intention to revisit the park in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. Six key attributes of the Bach Ma NP, including natural, social, and cultural attractions, infrastructure, accessibility, prices, and services, were detected in the study. Our results proved that all six characteristics of the national park had a significant positive effect on tourist satisfaction. Vietnamese tourists’ perceived risk associated with the pandemic had a significant negative impact on their satisfaction and a positive effect on their revisit intention. The finding also confirmed the significantly positive relationship between tourists’ satisfaction and their intention to return to the national park. Thereby, several implications can be drawn from our finding obtained in this study.

Theoretical Implications

The study makes a significant contribution to nature-based tourism literature by exploring the destination attractiveness of a protected area as well as the associations between it, tourists’ satisfaction, perceived risk, and intention to revisit the destination, particularly towards national parks in developing countries like Vietnam, notably with Vietnamese tourists and in the context of COVID-19. It adds to the existing information on the behaviors of nature-based domestic tourists, particularly in times of shocks such as COVID-19. There is scarce research on Vietnamese tourists’ intentions to return to national parks that is associated with tourist satisfaction and COVID-19-related risks. Unexpectedly, during the time of the pandemic, the COVID-19 risk perceptions of tourists with respect to a protected area were found to have a significant positive effect on their intention to return to the destination. In addition, this study contributes to the literature on destination attractiveness by considering the perceptions of domestic tourists on national park-based attributes affecting tourist satisfaction during pandemic outbreaks. The NBT destinations’ attractiveness promotes the ability of tourists to revisit them. Therefore, the results of the study contributed to the relevant fields of management and marketing of NBT destinations, specifically tourist satisfaction, behavioral intentions, tourism risk, and protected area management in Vietnam during the pandemic.

Managerial Implications

The findings of the study contribute to managerial applications for tourism policy-makers, NBT destination and protected area managers. The study contributes to a better understanding of the specific attractive attributes in tourism marketing and protected area management affecting tourist satisfaction, thus promoting the revisit intentions of domestic tourists to nature-based tourism destinations, as well as the relationship between them and the perceived risk of tourists in the Vietnamese NBT context during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Our results support useful information on various features of the Bach Ma NP (i.e., natural, social, and cultural attractions, infrastructure, accessibility, prices, and services) for national park managers and marketers to develop differentiated and positioned plans and strategies to increase tourist satisfaction. In addition, engaging stakeholders in the NBT sector contributes to effective strategies aimed at increasing the positive influence of destination characteristics on visitor satisfaction. In NBT development strategies, biodiversity conservation and good forest governance need to be considered the top priorities for national parks, which are recognized as the main body of nature protection in Vietnam. Disseminating knowledge pertaining to the natural characteristics of the national park (e.g., flora and fauna information) to its tourists can serve as a means of augmenting the park’s inherent allure as well as enhancing their comprehension of the park, fostering a more enriching interaction with nature, and ultimately increasing their level of contentment.

In terms of promoting social and cultural attributes, protected area managers can cooperate with service providers, such as tour operators and travel agents, who could encourage social and cultural exchange by hosting festivals and events in the park and engaging local communities around the area to attend to the tourism development. Attracting financial investment for improving amenities and accessibility in the park contributes to increasing the destination’s attractiveness, thus increasing tourist satisfaction. Our present results suggest that reasonable prices and services seem to be the majority of factors determining the tourism attractiveness of the destination, playing an important role in increasing tourist satisfaction. It is important for service providers to ensure that these attributes align with the needs and expectations of their customers. Additionally, set and listed prices by service providers and protected area managers should be strictly controlled to make sure that prices match listed information and the service quality offered in destinations, particularly in the context of shocks such as COVID-19. Thereby, enhanced tourist satisfaction is positively associated with their desire to revisit the national park.

Furthermore, the empirical evidence in this study contributes to a better understanding of the perceptions and behaviors of domestic tourists regarding tourist risks associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, thus supporting appropriate tourism strategies for risk management by tourism organizations and national park management in NBT destinations. Based on the epidemic prevention regulations of local authorities, tour organizations and national park managers may use flexible approaches to lessen tourists’ fears of risks, such as limiting the number of tourists visiting each area, offering contactless services to tourists, and persuading them to take self-prevention measures. When tourists actively perceive and migrate towards risks, particularly those related to the pandemic, they can enhance their trip experiences in the NBT destination, contributing to increased trip satisfaction. Intriguingly, this study found that the COVID-19 risk perceptions of Vietnamese tourists visiting Bach Ma National Park had a positive effect on their intention to return to the area. In addition to the flexible approaches mentioned by tour organizations and national park managers during the pandemic, detailed information about the safety and environmental quality of destinations needs to be emphasized in their tourism planning and strategies towards risk management, particularly appropriate communication strategies. This will make for a suitable preparation regarding various risks, including the pandemic, for tourists when visiting Bach Ma, thus not only contributing to the satisfaction of visitors but also increasing their intention to revisit the destination.

Limitations and Future Avenues of Research

Although great care was taken to ensure the impartiality, reliability, and validity of the present study, a number of limitations were detected when interpreting its results. The present study’s findings explored only Vietnamese tourists visiting Bach Ma National Park as a nature-based tourism destination in Vietnam. Further research is required to validate the proposed research model with different NBT destinations and foreign tourists from a variety of countries and nationalities. In order to devise a model fit that is more robust and reliable, additional research is necessary to consider the constructs and indicators included. For example, outlier detection and treatment should be carried out on the collected data. Additional constructs of perceived value, behavioural control of trips, experience quality, and attitude towards NBT and their mediating roles could be considered in the measurement model. The construct of perceived risk related to COVID-19 in the model only mentioned three items; thus, a more comprehensive assessment of tourists’ perceived different risks should be considered in future research.

Moreover, more detailed information about the profile of tourists and travel is needed to be considered in further studies on the measurement model, such as the effects of demographic information, geographic location (or distance from the NP), times of visit, length of stay, main reasons for visiting the destination, and prevention measures, on connections between tourist satisfaction, perceived risks, and intention behaviors. These further studies will provide a more profound analysis as well as comparisons with other authors regarding the model and variety of nature-based tourists. In the context of COVID-19 and prevention measures in Vietnam, such as keeping interpersonal distances and wearing face marks, this study applied a self-administrative questionnaire approach for the survey data collection. This suggested that the information provided by participants in the research might have been influenced by social desirability bias. Therefore, further investigation should be done using different sampling methods, with a focus on face-to-face interviews with both individual tourists and different tourist groups at different times (e.g., after a pandemic), to improve the accuracy of the data and make it possible to generalize the findings.

Footnotes

Appendix A

Table A1.

Measurement Items.

Constructs	Items	Adapted from
Natural attractions	Scenery/natural/landscape wonders	Agyeman, Aboagye, and Ashie (2019)
	Comfortable/good climate
	The park has varied and unique fauna
	The park has varied and unique flora
	Uniqueness and healthy condition of water (e.g., waterfalls/streams and rivers)
	Uniqueness of various altitudes/terrain
Social and cultural attractions	Interesting special events/programs in the park	Žabkar et al. (2010), Moon and Han (2018)
	Diversity of local cuisine/culinary culture
	Chance to experience local culture & history
	A variety of opportunities to experience local way of agricultural activities/life
	A variety of local products/brands in local shops
Infrastructure	Good availability of tourism information on the park/tourist centers	Moon and Han (2018), Agyeman, Aboagye, and Ashie (2019)
	Clear, well-presented and maintained signage/directions in the national park
	Well-designed and maintained walking trails/roads inside the national park
	Uniqueness of designed infrastructure (e.g., parking, toilet facilities)
	High quality of infrastructure (e.g., parking, toilet facilities)
Accessibility	Ease of visiting different sites/locations in the park	Moon and Han (2018)
	Ease of traveling other destinations around the park
	Convenience in accessing the park
Services	Brochures/maps/guides/useful information on the park were well prepared	Yoon et al. (2010)
	Impressive service provided by service staff
	The offer of recreational activities and services in the park is abundant
Prices	The price of accommodation is good	Yoon et al. (2010), Eusébio and Vieira (2013)
	The price of food and drinks is good
	The price of transportation is good
Tourist satisfaction	Overall, I am satisfied with this visit	Yoon et al. (2010), Žabkar et al. (2010), Oviedo-García et al. (2017), Moon and Han (2018)
	Overall, I am happy with this visit
	Overall, my evaluation of this destination is positive
Perceived risk toward COVID-19	Travelling to natural areas such as forests is not risky	Floyd and Pennington-Gray (2004), Reichel et al. (2009)
	I worry about COVID-19 infection at the destination
	I worry about some unexpected expenses at the destination because of COVID-19
Intention to revisit Bach Ma National Park	I intend to revisit this destination in the future	Moon and Han (2018)
	I am willing to return to this destination in the future
	It is very likely that I will come back to this place in the future
	Bach Ma could be again my next vacation place

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the respondents for their participation in this study. The authors are grateful to anonymous reviewers for numerous valuable suggestions and constructive comments that helped improve this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author(s) received financial support from the Research Group of the University of Economics, Hue University (Grant No. 02/HD-DHKT/2021-NCM) for this study.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

ORCID iD

Le Thanh An

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Exploring Relationships Between Nature-Based Destination Attractiveness,Satisfaction,Perceived COVID-19 Risk,and Revisit Intention in Bach Ma National Park,Vietnam

Abstract

Plain language summary

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

Attributes Determining Nature-Based Destination Attractiveness

Tourist Satisfaction and Revisit Intention

Interrelationships Among Perceived COVID-19 Risk, Tourist Satisfaction, and Revisit Intention

Methodology

Bach Ma National Park as a Site Study

Questionnaire Design and Measurement Development

Data Collection and Sample

Data Analysis

Results

Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics

Factor Analyses

Structural Equation Model

Discussion

Conclusions

Theoretical Implications

Managerial Implications

Limitations and Future Avenues of Research

Footnotes

Appendix A

Acknowledgements

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

Informed Consent Statement

ORCID iD

Data Availability Statement

References