Abstract
This study investigates the key determinants of tourist satisfaction at eco-tourism destinations using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Drawing from a sample of 200 Vietnamese eco-tourists to destinations in Vietnam, the study investigates the direct effects of five dimensions on satisfaction and their impact on recycling behavior intention to the destinations. The results show that Destination Accessibility (β = .237, p = .033) and Locals and Staff (β = .209, p = .044) are strong predictors of satisfaction, which shows the importance of accessibility and social contact with locals. Resource Attractiveness also has a strong impact (β = .213, p < .001). On the other hand, Products and Services show a statistically non-significant impact (β = −.139, p = .127), indicating a shift toward non-commodity experiences in eco-tourism. The findings provide eco-tourism managers with insights into new and traditional factors to deal with evolving tourist expectations and facilitating better eco-tourism experiences.
Plain Language Summary
This study looks at what makes eco-tourists happy when they visit eco-tourism destinations in Vietnam. Using a method called Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), researchers asked 200 Vietnamese eco-tourists about their experiences. The study focused on five main areas that could affect their satisfaction and whether they would want to visit again. The results showed that being able to easily access destinations and having positive interactions with locals and staff were big factors in how happy tourists felt. The natural beauty and cultural preservation of the destinations also played an important role. However, traditional products and services, like souvenirs or standard amenities, did not have a significant impact on their satisfaction. This suggests that eco-tourists are more interested in unique and meaningful experiences rather than material offerings. These findings are useful for eco-tourism managers, showing them where to focus their efforts. By improving accessibility, promoting local interactions, and preserving nature and culture, they can create better experiences for visitors. Overall, the research supports the idea of developing eco-tourism in a way that is both enjoyable for tourists and sustainable for the environment.
Introduction
Eco-tourism has been one of the fastest-growing sectors in world tourism, especially as travelers continue to seek a combination of destinations offering sustainability and the conservation of natural environments (Fennell, 2020). This trend has become quite particular in Vietnam country richly endowed with natural beauty, different landscapes, and an emerging market for eco-tourism (Trang et al., 2023). Besides affording tourists chances to experience natural resources in their pristine state, it plays a major role in ensuring that these resources are conserved for future times (Stronza & Gordillo, 2008). While the number of eco-tourism destinations is increasing, understanding what drives visitor satisfaction will be paramount in ensuring that the practices of eco-tourism are sustainable and viable in the long term (Hatma Indra Jaya et al., 2024).
Tourist satisfaction is one of the major indicators of the success or failure of an eco-tourism initiative (Al-Ababneh, 2013). Resource attractiveness, destination accessibility, and the quality of services offered contribute to visitor satisfaction (Adesunloye & Arowosafe, 2022). The critical case of balance for the fulfillment of the tourist demands and environmental care is so touching in eco-tourism; therefore, satisfying the tourist should be of utmost importance. Concerning visitor satisfaction, Hwang and Lee (2019) argue that besides reflecting experience quality, satisfaction demonstrates how well the destination can look after its nature and cultural assets (Hwang & Lee, 2019). Maintaining high satisfaction levels is required to further guarantee a bright future toward ongoing success with such eco-tourism destinations (Carvache-Franco et al., 2022).
The importance of evaluating tourist satisfaction in eco-tourism can be seen in several key areas (Z. Yang, 2024). Satisfied visitors are more likely to return, share positive experiences, and support conservation efforts (Ballantyne et al., 2009). Conversely, dissatisfaction can lead to negative reviews and a decline in visitation, which directly impacts the local economy (Prakash et al., 2019). Furthermore, satisfaction understanding allows destinations to identify their strengths and weaknesses, thus remaining competitive in the ever-growing eco-tourism market (Hassan, 2000).
Assessing satisfaction is, therefore, the critical nature of visitors engaging in sustainability initiatives (Sahabuddin et al., 2024). Cheng et al. (2022) identify that those visitors who are satisfied have a greater propensity to take part in nature conservation efforts and also develop supporting behavior that is environmentally friendly, hence complementing the intentions of eco-tourism (Cheng et al., 2022). Satisfaction evaluation at the destination also supports managers with the information necessary for policy decisions and understanding resources and services against the expectations of tourists (Z. Yang, 2024).
The current study measures the satisfaction of visitors to eco-tourism spots using a multidimensional approach (Adesunloye & Arowosafe, 2022; Carvache-Franco et al., 2022; Iqbal et al., 2023; Luekveerawattana, 2024; Z. Yang, 2024). In this research study, the SEM PLS is proposed for identifying visitor-satisfaction patterns along the five key factors of Resource attractiveness, Destination accessibility, Locals and staff, Products and services, and Security and safety. By analyzing these dimensions, this study will be able to provide insight into how the various aspects of the eco-tourism experience impact overall satisfaction and make recommendations for the improvement of the visitor experience. Also, to guide the development of the research model, this study seeks to answer the following research question: “What are the key determinants of tourist satisfaction in eco-tourism destinations in Vietnam, and how do these factors influence tourists’ satisfaction?”
These results will add to the increasing pool of knowledge regarding eco-tourism management and how to maintain a delicate balance between environmental and social concerns, coupled with the economic aspects that make such places sustainable and pleasing for tourists to visit. Additionally, this research will seek to provide practical suggestions for managers and policymakers at destinations involved in eco-tourism on how they can improve the visitor experience so that these places remain desirable and sustainable for future periods.
Literature Review and Research Hypothesis
Eco-Tourism and the Role of Tourist Satisfaction
Eco-tourism has grown rapidly and is now one of the biggest sectors in international tourism. The main inspiration behind this form of tourism can be seen as increasing environmental awareness and demand for tourism which should be sustainable and conserve the environment. Ecotourism is fundamentally about responsible travel to natural areas, where the main objectives are environmental preservation, the well-being of local communities, and fostering educational experiences that help visitors understand conservation practices (Samal & Dash, 2023). The concept of sustainability in eco-tourism seeks to balance environmental, economic, and social goals to ensure that eco-tourism experiences remain authentic while maintaining natural resources and cultural heritage for future generations (Baydeniz et al., 2024).
Despite its emphasis on environmental protection and sustainable practices, the success of eco-tourism does not rely on these factors alone. Tourist satisfaction is determined by a combination of tangible and intangible aspects that define the overall experience. Therefore, in addition to environmental conservation, the effectiveness of eco-tourism also relies on the ability of these destinations to provide memorable and meaningful experiences that meet the expectations and desires of eco-tourists.
The viability of eco-tourism activities is not just reliant on nature conservation but also on the tourist satisfaction of those who engage in such activities (Al-Ababneh, 2013). Tourist satisfaction in eco-tourism is a multifaceted concept that demonstrates both cognitive and affective evaluations of the experience (Z. Yang, 2024). Visitors who are satisfied are likely to visit again, offer support for conservation locally, and give recommendations to others (Ballantyne et al., 2009). On the other hand, dissatisfaction can potentially negatively affect destination loyalty and reverse sustainability goals. Therefore, understanding the factors leading to satisfaction is necessary to provide the longevity, competitiveness, and ethical integrity of eco-tourism.
A Multi-Theoretical Framework for Eco-tourism Satisfaction
An understanding of tourist satisfaction within the framework of eco-tourism demands the application of a multi-theoretical framework that includes cognitive measures and affective experience. Three seminal theories—Expectation-Confirmation Theory (ECT), the SERVQUAL model, and Experience Economy Theory—collectively offer a holistic framework for understanding how eco-tourists evaluate and construct their satisfaction judgments. Expectation-Confirmation Theory () postulates that satisfaction is a function of the extent to which perceived performance confirms or disconfirms prior expectations. In eco-tourism, where expectations are likely to be in favor of sustainability, nature conservation, and cultural authenticity, the degree to which expectations are fulfilled or not affects satisfaction outcomes significantly.
Existing empirical studies conducted by Cheng et al. (2022) and Z. Yang (2024) support that the satisfaction of eco-tourists is correlated with the extent to which their expectations of environmental protection, biodiversity richness, and authentic contact with nature are fulfilled. Consequently, ECT offers a cognitive foundation for establishing whether accessibility, services, and environmental attributes meet or surpass tourists’ expectations. The SERVQUAL model (Parasuraman et al., 1988) completes ECT by offering a systematic framework whereby service quality is assessed. SERVQUAL lays down five dimensions—reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, and tangibles—which, in the context of eco-tourism, underscore the importance of human interface, service delivery, and trust.
Recent studies on eco-tourism (Iqbal et al., 2023; Jasrotia et al., 2023) have established that empathy and confidence—displayed through local guides, hotel staff, and culturally contextualized interaction—are significant predictors of satisfaction. Further, the tangibles dimension, which includes eco-friendly hotels and sanitary facilities, meets minimum expectations for comfort while providing environmental regard. Alongside cognitive and service-related paradigms, the Experience Economy Theory (Pine & Gilmore, 1999) offers a radical perspective: satisfaction is created through engaging, memorable, and affect-laden experience. Eco-tourism is experiential in nature; visitors seek not just landscape but involvement in conservation, cultural immersion, and spiritual or self-actualizing enrichment.
Recent research emphasizes the increasing significance of authenticity and experience co-creation in driving satisfaction and loyalty in the realm of eco-tourism (West & Carrier, 2004; L. Yang et al., 2023). In contrast to mass tourism, eco-tourists derive value from distinctive experiences integrating education, environment, and ethics—thereby aligning closely with the experiential economy framework. By integrating these three models, this study constructs a theoretically coherent eco-tourism satisfaction model. ECT defines expectation-meeting processes, SERVQUAL quantifies service encounter and consistency, and Experience Economy Theory emphasizes deep emotional satisfaction. Triangulation in this manner enables both functional and affective dimensions of the eco-tourism experience to be represented, providing a complete picture of satisfaction formation in the sustainable tourism context.
Dimensions of Eco-tourism Satisfaction
Resource Attractiveness
The primary determinant of tourist satisfaction in eco-tourism is the attractiveness of the destination’s natural resources (Romão et al., 2014). Ecotourism is inherently connected to nature, and what makes an eco-destination appealing is its high biodiversity, pristine ecosystems, and unique landscapes it provides. Eco-tourism sites attract tourists because they allow them to take part in outdoor activities like hiking, wildlife viewing, and nature walks (Basendwah et al., 2024). Several studies indicate that esthetic beauty and ecological health are key elements in visitor satisfaction regarding the destination in question (Sahabuddin et al., 2024). Generally, tourists seek experiences that allow them to appreciate the natural environment, and when they perceive that these resources are well-preserved, their satisfaction levels tend to increase.
The satisfaction of eco-tourists is also very much linked with biodiversity and wildlife preservation. Visitors are attracted not only by the beauty of nature but also to destinations that focus on environmental conservation, such as wildlife protection and habitat restoration (Jasrotia et al., 2023). For the success of eco-tourism, the esthetics offered must be combined with real engagement in conservation practices. This adds to the overall visitors’ experience and strengthens the principles of eco-tourism; people tend to avoid destinations that allow their resources to be used without preservation.
Accessibility for Destination
While the quality of natural resources is very pivotal, the second important factor influencing tourist satisfaction relates to destination accessibility. Accessibility refers to how easily tourists can travel to and from a destination. This ranges from transportation infrastructure to convenience in terms of access to public or private transportation and generally getting around to the destination itself (Chin et al., 2018; Yen et al., 2021)
Many eco-tourism destinations are in remote or rural areas, which, while offering natural beauty, can present challenges for tourists in terms of access. Although some tourists may view these remote locations as an adventure, others may find difficulties such as long travel times, limited transport options, or poor road conditions to be barriers to a satisfying experience (Juschten & Preyer, 2023; Musa et al., 2011). It was found that the more accessible a destination is, yet still retains its environmental integrity, the more satisfied tourists are (Yen et al., 2021). Accessibility is thus considered an important enabling factor to ensure that eco-tourists enjoy their visit without any undue stress or discomfort. Hence, managers of eco-tourism must ensure the proper development of transport solutions that are accessible and help meet the goals of sustainability.
Locals and Staff
The quality of human resources in an eco-tourism destination is a fundamental determinant of tourist satisfaction. This encompasses not only the professionalism of local guides but also the hospitality and attitude of the community and service staff. Knowledgeable and well-trained guides enhance the visitor experience by offering insightful commentary about the destination’s natural and cultural heritage (Luekveerawattana, 2025). The interaction between the tourists and local communities is a fundamental part of the eco-tourism experience. Most tourists look for experiences that are authentic and immersive and require direct interaction with the locals. Consequently, the capacity of the locals to provide meaningful interactions about conservation efforts, local customs, and sustainability practices deepens the impact of the eco-tourism experience (Habibulloev et al., 2024).
Well-trained service people who understand the principles of sustainability also assist in making the visit easier and more pleasant. This becomes quite important in eco-tourism, wherein the experience of being in a setting that is sensitive to both the environment and society is part of the core of the appeal. These positive interactions with locals will also help increase tourist satisfaction and contribute to deeper emotional bonds with the destination and its cultural heritage.
Tourism Products and Services
While the core of eco-tourism is the conservation of the environment, the quality of accommodation, food, guided tours, and recreational activities also determines the satisfaction of the visitor (Baloch et al., 2023). A balance must be achieved by the destinations in eco-tourism between the promotion of environmental sustainability and high-quality services to cater to the needs of the tourists. Accommodations should be environmentally friendly, food should be sourced sustainably, and activities should minimize their impact on the environment (Stolyarchuk, 2023)
When the services offered align with the values of eco-tourism—such as through educational programs on conservation or eco-friendly practices—tourists experience a more authentic visit, which leads to greater satisfaction (L. Yang et al., 2023). For instance, offering educational programs on the destination’s conservation efforts or involving tourists in local sustainability practices can enhance the overall experience, helping visitors feel that they are contributing to the preservation of the environment (Meschini et al., 2021). Added to this, tourists are increasingly looking for destinations where low-impact activities can be pursued that contribute positively to the environment. When these values are translated into the services offered, the authenticity of the eco-tourism experience is furthered (West & Carrier, 2004).
Safety and Security
Finally, safety and security are overarching factors contributing to tourist satisfaction (Xie et al., 2021). This includes both the physical safety of tourists and the management of the destination’s environmental impacts. Cleanliness of the destination, waste management, and cultural heritage protection are all covered under one umbrella which provides a safe and secure environment for the visitor. According to Durán-Román et al. (2021), a destination that provides environmental protection coupled with social and cultural sustainability is more likely to produce an experience that would be satisfying for a tourist.
Effective destination management, with education for tourists on their role in the conservation contribution, to minimize environmental impacts, helps reinforce the values of responsible travel. It would increase their impression during travel and leave them with a sense of satisfaction if the tourists feel that they are safe and secure and understand how their actions can help with the preservation of the destination as well (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2023). This helps make the environmental management system sound and ensures that the tourists are educated in sustainable practices, further enriching their experience as well as the longevity of the eco-tourism destination (Šimková et al., 2023).
Research Hypothesis
Grounded in the multi-theoretical framework outlined above, this study posits that each of the five constructs contributes uniquely and significantly to eco-tourist satisfaction. The hypotheses are as follows (Figure 1):
The proposed research model.
These hypotheses test the relationships between various factors and their impacts on the overall satisfaction of eco-tourists. Each factor is expected to contribute significantly to improving the experience of visitors at eco-tourism destinations. Specific:
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The Research Methodology
Research Design
This study employs a quantitative research design to analyze the factors affecting tourist satisfaction at ecotourism destinations in Vietnam. The research adopts a multidimensional analysis approach to identify the key determinants of satisfaction in this context.
Survey Instrument
The survey instrument used in this study is designed to measure the perceptions of eco-tourists regarding several factors that contribute to their overall satisfaction. These factors include ENG, DA, LAS, PAS, and SAS (Table 1), as highlighted in prior studies and theoretical frameworks. The survey questions were developed based on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1—Completely disagree to 5—Completely agree) to capture the respondents’ level of agreement with various statements related to these factors. The final questionnaire was pre-tested with a small sample to ensure clarity and reliability before being distributed to the target respondents.
Outer Loadings Analysis.
Data Analysis
Data were collected from 200 eco-tourists who have visited ecotourism destinations in Vietnam. A convenience sampling method was used to approach tourists at various eco-tourism locations. The sample came from eco-tourists who were touring some of Vietnam’s destination points, including Cuc Phuong National Park, Cat Tien, and Phong Nha-Ke Bang. Data was gathered using a convenience sampling technique, where data collection was conducted using on-site questionnaires administered between January and March 2024.
Following the “10-times rule,” (Hair & Alamer, 2022), the minimum sample requirement is 10 times the maximum possible number of indicators per construct—in our case, 30. The sample of 200 clearly surpasses this threshold. Additionally, a G*Power analysis (power = 0.80, alpha = .05; Faul et al., 2007), confirms that 200 is sufficient for detecting medium effect sizes in SEM models.
The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique, specifically Partial Least Squares (PLS-SEM), was employed to analyze the data. PLS-SEM is an appropriate tool for testing complex models with latent variables, especially when dealing with moderate sample sizes. This method allows for the analysis of the interactions between multiple independent and dependent variables, making it suitable for evaluating the hypothesized relationships in the study. The justification for the selection of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) lies in its suitability for exploratory research with predictive emphasis, particularly under small to moderate sample sizes and models involving complex structures with several latent constructs (Hair et al., 2022). Furthermore, PLS-SEM is revealed to be robust against non-normality violations and is effective with both formative and reflective indicators.
The hypotheses were developed based on a comprehensive review of the literature, with a focus on understanding how factors like destination accessibility, local staff interaction, and resource quality contribute to overall tourist satisfaction. The PLS-SEM model helps test these relationships by providing path coefficients, allowing for an in-depth understanding of the significant influences on eco-tourists satisfaction (Hair & Alamer, 2022).
The SEM application process in this study is sequential (Figure 2). First, the hypotheses and model form are defined by defining both observed and latent variables and their relationships. Next, data are collected from 200 eco-tourists through surveys of observed variables. The model is estimated through SEM software like SmartPLS, where parameters like path coefficients and error terms are computed. On estimation, the model is validated by the testing of fit indices (e.g., Cronbach’s Alpha, rho_A, Composite Reliability, AVE, VIF) and the determination of the significance of the path coefficients (p-values). In order to minimize the possibility of common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test was performed (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The single factor accounted for only 36.4% of the overall variance, far less than the 50% mark, thereby ensuring that the threat of common method bias is not a significant one to this research.
The research analysis process.
The results are interpreted based on the analysis of path coefficients and determining whether hypotheses are supported. The results are compared with previous literature in an attempt to explain their implications and contribute to the knowledge of eco-tourism satisfaction. Finally, the results are emphasized in the report, serving managerial implications toward eco-tourism and delivering recommendations for follow-up studies. The process has the assurance of testing and establishing factor relationships conclusively throughout the study.
Ethical Considerations
To ensure the ethical integrity of the research, all participants were informed about the study’s purpose and assured that their personal information would remain confidential. The data collected was used solely for academic research purposes, and respondents’ anonymity was guaranteed throughout the study. Additionally, participants were provided with the option to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence (Bos, 2020).
This study has adopted convenience sampling, which is appropriate when research is in the context of tourism and, in this case, especially, if data collection were to be drawn from tourists visiting a region. The sample size comprised 200 tourists who visited Ecotourism sites in Vietnam with various demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education, employment, and annual income (Figure 3).
Demographic characteristics of respondents.
Results
Measurement Model Analysis
Outer Loading Analysis
The quality of observed variables tests attempt to establish whether any observable variable in a factor structure fails to adequately describe the latent variable. Variables that accurately represent latent variables will be kept, while those that do not meet the requirements will be deleted from the model. Hair and Alamer (2022) found that the outer loading factor influences the quality rating of observable variables (Hair & Alamer, 2022). The authors suggest that an observed variable’s outer loading factor be more than or equal to 0.7 for best meaning. However, it is necessary to evaluate composite reliability (CR) and convergence validity (AVE). If CR or AVE is below the suggested level and deleting an observed variable with outer loading < 0.7 raises CR or AVE to the appropriate threshold, that variable will be deleted. On the other hand, if CR or AVE satisfies the requisite threshold and the observed variable has an outer loading of 0.4 to 0.7, it can be retained (Hair & Alamer, 2022).
The outer loadings presented in the table show the strength of the relationships between the respective observed variables and their latent constructs in the model. For Destination Accessibility (DA), the observed variables DA_1, DA_2, and DA_3 have strong outer loadings at 0.908, 0.892, and 0.876, respectively. These stand to confirm that these indicators reliably capture the concept of accessibility at eco-tourism destinations. These high values suggest that ease of access is an important determinant of tourist satisfaction, hence the need for good transportation infrastructure and convenience for visitors.
For Locals and Staff (LAS), the loadings are stronger, namely on LAS_2, which reaches an outstanding level of 0.953, followed by LAS_1 (0.911) and LAS_3 (0.930). This indicates that tourists appreciate interactions with their local staff, the professionalism shown by the latter, and the levels of hospitality provided. The results thus emphasize that positive experiences with local staff are a key determinant in satisfaction concerning eco-tourism.
Similarly, the Products and Services (PAS) construct is represented by PAS_1 (0.946), PAS_2 (0.923), and PAS_3 (0.933), all of which show strong outer loadings, suggesting that the quality of accommodations, food, and services offered aligns well with the expectations of eco-tourists. High-quality, sustainable products and services play an essential role in enhancing the overall eco-tourism experience.
All these, in combination, point to the important factors that contribute to the overall satisfaction of eco-tourists: accessibility, local and staff quality, and the products and services offered. This provides valuable lessons for destination managers in focusing on these areas for improvement in eco-tourism.
Analysis of Construct Reliability and Validity
Hair et al. (2022) suggest that the scale’s reliability be evaluated using two indexes: Cronbach Alpha and Composite reliability rho_c. Cronbach, the classic reliability evaluation coefficient, has several disadvantages and tends to underestimate the scale’s fundamental dependability. As a result, composite reliability (rho_c) will be more appropriate. The composite reliability rho_c is examined in the same way as Cronbach is. This coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, with zero representing low reliability and one indicating high reliability. Composite reliability rho_c values ranging from 0.6 to 0.7 are suitable for exploratory study, with 0.7 to 0.9 being optimal.
The Average Variant Extract (AVE) measure is widely used in studies to assess scale convergence. Hock et al. (2010) define convergent validity as a scale with an AVE of 0.5 or higher (Hock et al., 2010). The level of 0.5 (50%) implies that the average latent variable accounts for at least half of the variation in each observed subvariable.
Table 2 and Figure 4 illustrate the findings of the study’s construct reliability and validity of the five dimensions that are discussed in the research. These include Destination Accessibility (DA), Locals and Staff (LAS), Products and Services (PAS), Resources (ENR), and Security and Safety (SAS) using Cronbach’s Alpha, rho_A, Composite Reliability, and Average Variance Extracted (AVE).
Construct Reliability and Validity.
The indicators of construct reliability and validity.
Cronbach’s Alpha values (Table 2) show the internal consistency of each construct, with values above .7 being considered acceptable. In this instance, all constructs express strong reliability. With a measure of internal consistency, LAS = 0.924, PAS = 0.927, and SAS = 0.940 have excellent internal consistency, while DA = 0.872 and ENR = 0.836 also surpass the acceptable threshold, with ENR being somewhat low.
The rho_A values, which measure the reliability of each construct similarly to Cronbach’s Alpha, are also very high across all constructs. LAS = 0.926; PAS = 0.930, and SAS = 0.941, all show excellent reliability, confirming that these constructs are well-defined. DA = 0.87 and ENR = 0.842 still show good reliability, though slightly lower than the others.
For Composite Reliability, which measures internal consistency, all constructs exceed the threshold of 0.7. PAS = 0.953, and SAS = 0.954 show the highest reliability, followed by LAS = 0.952; and DA = 0.921, both of which also demonstrate strong reliability.
The convergent validity scale is the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). Values above 0.5 ensure that the validity is adequate. PAS is 0.872, LAS is 0.868, and SAS is 0.805; hence, they are all high in AVE, with convergent validity to be excellent. DA has also been valid at 0.796. ENR is short of the level and is at 0.669. The construct demonstrates adequate reliability and remains theoretically and empirically justified for inclusion in the model. In this dimension, therefore, more effort is required.
Accompanying graphs visually present the reliability and validity of constructs, where, from most, the green-colored bars exceed recommended thresholds. Still reliable, yet with lower AVE, was the construct for Resources (ENR), and further refinement of this factor is likely to help improve the overall validity of this model.
The results generally indicate that the measurement model used in this study shows very strong reliability and validity, with most constructs performing well in most measures. While Resources (ENR) has room for improvement, the overall model is robust and provides a sound foundation to understand those factors that influence the satisfaction of ecotourists.
Discriminant Validity
Discriminant validity reveals how distinctive a construct is when compared to other constructs. Studies examine discriminant validity using the Fornell and Larcker.
Discriminant validity analysis, represented in Table 3, provides evidence that the constructs included in this study, namely Approach and Infrastructure, Locals, Resources, Security and Safety, Service and Products, and Tourist Satisfaction, are different from each other, as represented by the correlations and AVE values. The diagonal values have to be greater than the off-diagonal correlations; thus, they are the square roots of the Average Variance Extracted and show that each construct is adequately distinct. For example, DA (AVE = 0.892) indicates low correlations with other constructs in particular the ENG (0.266) and TSAT (0.622), establishing its discriminant validity. In the same way, Locals (AVE = 0.932) indicate low correlations with ENG (0.149) and TSAT (0.588), which also confirms it as a separate construct. ENG (AVE = 0.818) exhibit weak correlations with other dimensions, except for SAS (0.209) and PAS (0.756), indicating their unique role in the model. The construct of SAS (AVE = 0.897) shows moderate correlations with DA (0.714) and Locals (0.714) while maintaining distinctness from other constructs. Lastly, PAS maintain low to moderate correlations with other constructs AVE 0.934, forming a strong distinction with ENG 0.148. Overall, the results indicate that all constructs are reliably distinct, thus reinforcing the validity of the model and confirming that dimensions of eco-tourism satisfaction are adequately captured.
Discriminant Validity (Fornell and Larcker).
Structure Model Analysis
The Bootstrapping method is used to estimate the statistical significance of path coefficients in the structural model. The method estimates standard error for each path coefficient so that it can be used to calculate T-test statistics and p-values to determine the strength and significance of the relationship between variables. In this study, a standard threshold of 0.05 (5%) is used to determine significance. A p-value of less than .05 is an indication that the path coefficient is statistically significant, whereas a p-value of more than .05 implies that the relationship is not significant.
From Table 4 and Figure 5, the hypothesis test results are as follows: H5 (Destination Accessibility (DA) → Tourist Satisfaction) shows a path coefficient of 0.237, a T-statistic of 2.134, and a p-value of .033, which is statistically significant, leading to the acceptance of the hypothesis. H2 (Locals and Staff (LAS) → Tourist Satisfaction) presents a path coefficient of 0.209, a T-statistic of 2.016, and a p-value of .044, also statistically significant, thus this hypothesis is accepted as well. H3 (Products and Services (PAS) → Tourist Satisfaction) reveals a path coefficient of −0.139, a T-statistic of 1.529, and a p-value of .127, which is not statistically significant, resulting in the rejection of this hypothesis. H1 (ENR Resources → Tourist Satisfaction) shows a path coefficient of 0.213, a T-statistic of 3.825, and a p-value of .000, indicating statistical significance, and therefore this hypothesis is accepted. Lastly, H4 (Security and Safety (SAS) → Tourist Satisfaction) has a path coefficient of 0.397, a T-statistic of 5.358, and a p-value of .000, demonstrating a very significant relationship, leading to the acceptance of this hypothesis.
Path Coefficients.
The PLS-SEM of the factor on ecotourism (bootstrapping).
These results provide evidence for the effects of Destination Accessibility (DA), Locals and Staff (LAS), Resources (ENR), and Security and Safety (SAS) on Tourist Satisfaction, whereas Products and Services (PAS) have no significant effect (Figure 4). Compared with the original proposed model and hypothesis, the factors affecting tourists’ satisfaction with ecotourism destinations. Therefore, the research model is adjusted as shown in Figure 6.
The adjusted research model.
Discussion
It is from these results of bootstrapping (Table 4) that important insights into the factors causing Tourist Satisfaction in eco-tourism destinations can be had. The negative and positive signs of Destination Accessibility (DA) and Locals and Staff (LAS), which are significant relations with tourist satisfaction, and its rejection of positive signs of Product and Services offered (PAS) with tourist satisfaction, reveal important implications for both researchers and practitioners. In this section, we describe the findings in the context of existing literature, pointing out similarities, extensions, and differences.
Destination Accessibility (DA) → Tourist Satisfaction: In support, Destination Accessibility (DA) is found to significantly contribute to tourist satisfaction, with a β = .237 at p = .033, which is also asserted in previous studies to be one of the prime drivers in tourism (Chin et al., 2018; Yen et al., 2021). Ease of access to the destinations contributes to a holistic experience. The fact that accessibility plays an important role in shaping satisfaction perhaps suggests that ecotourism operators should make investments in developing transportation infrastructure while ensuring that access to destinations becomes easy and comfortable without compromising the principles of environmental sustainability.
In slight contrast, Prideaux (2002) suggested that because the experiences offered at remote destinations are unavailable at more accessible sites, their uniqueness can provide added value to those destinations. The contribution of this study, however, confirms the twinning of accessibility and nature of the eco-tourism experience so vital that very remote sites may also satisfy a visitor when access is provided.
Locals and Staff (LAS) → Tourist Satisfaction: The positive and significant relationship between Locals and Staff (LAS) and Tourist Satisfaction (β = .209, p = .044) is aligned with previous studies that underscores the importance of local hospitality and staff professionalism in enhancing tourist experiences (Hatma Indra Jaya et al., 2024). As indicated, tourists demand authentic, interactive experiences, and positive interactions between tourists and the local staff can be critical for fulfilling this demand (Samal & Dash, 2023). This indicates that well-trained and knowledgeable local staff can truly enhance the experience of the tourists, especially when it comes to eco-tourism, for which understanding and promoting local culture, sustainability practices, and efforts at conservation play a crucial part in the experience.
This finding further supports the framework of Adesunloye & Arowosafe (2022), in which emotional involvement with local communities becomes the nucleus for the satisfaction of eco-tourism. On the other hand, although staff interactions are identified by most studies as being fundamental to satisfaction, a significant lack in the existing literature is that relating to technology and digital resources, which might play a complementary role in further improving human relationships. This study’s findings encourage future research to explore how digital innovations, such as virtual tours or mobile apps, could complement local hospitality.
Products and Services (PAS) → Tourist Satisfaction: The relationship between Products and Services (PAS) and Tourist Satisfaction was found to be insignificant (β = −.139, p = .127), suggesting that, in the context of eco-tourism, economic factors, and traditional service offerings are less important than other dimensions such as accessibility, local engagement, and the preservation of natural resources. This is against the usual and traditional tourism industries, which are focused on offering high-quality products and services (Al-Ababneh, 2013).
The lack of significance in this study resonates with Samal and Dash (2023), who opined that the non-commodity experiences, including environmental conservation efforts and authentic cultural engagements, take precedence over the traditional service elements such as luxury accommodations or high-end dining for eco-tourists. This shift in consumer preferences reflects a change in the market for eco-tourism, where the experience itself, especially the preservation of natural and cultural resources, becomes more important than the commercial aspects.
This is also in tandem with the research conducted by Zhang et al. (2024), which indicates that eco-tourists have a preference for destinations that can provide authentic, low-impact, and educational experiences rather than those that rely on high-end tourism products. Thus, tourism managers must aim to enhance experiential value rather than only trying to upgrade traditional service offerings.
The finding that PAS do not significantly affect tourist satisfaction (p = .127) contrasts with conventional tourism literature. However, in the context of eco-tourism, this result aligns with recent research highlighting tourists’ preference for experiential authenticity over commercialized service offerings (Samal & Dash, 2023; Zhang et al., 2024). Eco-tourists may prioritize nature, conservation, and cultural engagement over luxury accommodations or elaborate services. This shift reflects evolving values in tourism consumption, emphasizing sustainability and low-impact interactions. Future research may explore how PAS contributes indirectly through mediating factors such as environmental values or perceived authenticity.
Resources (ENR) → Tourist Satisfaction: Positive and significant impacts of Resources on the tourist’s satisfaction (β = .213, p = .000) give quite strong support to the fundamental role played by natural resources in the context of eco-tourism, such as biodiversity and untainted ecosystems (Luekveerawattana, 2024). The Eco-tourist generally likes such destinations that offer them diverse and rich natural environs. Allowing the direct and multiple impacts of the perceived quality of resources on their perceived satisfaction levels.
This outcome is supported by Basendwah et al. (2024), which reported that the esthetic and ecological attributes of a destination are of prime importance in tourist satisfaction within the context of eco-tourism. The significance of Resources (ENR) further adds to the aspect of environmental protection as an essential factor for tourists to visit the destination. More satisfying experiences for eco-tourists can be expected at those destinations that engage in resource conservation and encourage the adoption of environmentally friendly practices.
Security and Safety (SAS) → Tourist Satisfaction: The Security and Safety (SAS) construct shows a highly significant positive effect on Tourist Satisfaction (β = .397, p = .000), which is in line with existing research highlighting the crucial role of safety and security in shaping the tourist experience (Xie et al., 2021). In eco-tourism, safety is not only about physical security but also the perceived safety of the environment, including the management of natural hazards and wildlife encounters.
This study resonates with Fung & Jim’s work in 2015, which highlights that safety provisions such as; adequate waste management, safe usage of the facilities about eco-tourism sites, and integration of local communities create a sense of security, thus satisfaction among the tourists. By and large, often, eco-tourism activities occur in remote and wild areas, ensuring safety is of paramount importance for having a good and memorable experience.
Compared to the available literature, findings from this study support the recent aware region that eco-tourists give more attention to environmental and social issues, such as access, people, and conservation of natural resources, than traditional tourism products and services. The insignificant rejection of PAS signifies a shift toward more experiential tourism and sustainable tourism, which prioritizes the authenticity of the product and its conservation over commercial concerns. These results add to the dynamic nature of the understanding of ecotourism satisfaction and offer new insights to tourism managers while suggesting that a deeper focus might be needed on the environmental and social dimensions of the tourist experience.
This research represents a deep analysis of the factors affecting visitor satisfaction at eco-tourism destinations in Vietnam, highlighting the intricacies of the expectations of eco-tourists. The results show that destination accessibility and contact with locals and staff are crucial in determining overall satisfaction, underlining the importance of both practical and experiential aspects of ecotourism. Besides, the beauty of natural and cultural resources is a factor of happiness, with a high score, which signifies the importance of ecological and cultural integrity in these destinations. Surprisingly, low impact means that products and services indicate a shifting trend in eco-tourism patterns whereby eco-tourists are mainly interested in genuine, non-commercial experiences rather than economic concerns. This trend therefore shows a movement away from mere service-oriented tourism toward a deeper and more meaningful relationship with nature and the host communities.
The findings in this study go to proamong others, some important theoretical contributions toward research on eco-tourism studies. First is that the impactful relationships of DA, LAS, ENR, and SAS with Tourist Satisfaction support the insights of extant literature that focus on the features of the natural environment and people as vital drivers of eco-tourist perceptions. This study reinforces the fact that eco-tourism satisfaction is not driven by commercial products or services but is very much connected with the quality of the resources at the destination and the experiences the tourists have with the local community. Secondly, the insignificant relationship between PAS and Tourist Satisfaction questions traditional models of tourism, which emphasize the importance of commercial products in the overall tourist experience. This finding points to the reality that eco-tourists ascribe a higher value to non-commodity experiences of environmental conservation, cultural authenticity, and experiential learning than to luxury services or material commodities. It also contributes further to the knowledge base with tourism-specific characteristics relative to conventional tourism in terms of their centrality on sustainability and immersion over concerns related to consumerism. The study extends previous theoretical frameworks in the context of confirming that environmental, social, and security-related factors influence general satisfaction and hence provide greater depth to the concept of eco-tourism satisfaction. With several integrated constructs such as Locals and Staff, Resources, and Security and Safety, this research offers a multidimensional model that captures more accurately the intricateness of the concept of satisfaction in eco-tourism.
These findings therefore provide some key managerial implications for managers of eco-tourism destinations seeking to enhance tourist satisfaction for the sustainable development of eco-tourism. First, the significantly high contribution of Destination Accessibility means that eco-tourism destinations have to develop their transportation system so that access can be easy without causing environmental degradation. Managers should aim at sustainable solutions for transportation links, such as shuttle services using eco-friendly fuels or upgrading roads leading to the destination, without necessarily degrading the destination’s natural capital. Secondly, the positive influence of LAS on satisfaction emphasizes investments in the training and development of locals. This means that, through training programs emphasizing cultural heritage, environmental sustainability, and high levels of customer service, destination managers can ensure that there is quality in local guides and staff to engage tourists at a higher level. Third, the high importance of Resources (ENR) underlines that preserving natural resources and biodiversity is necessary to maintain eco-tourism satisfaction. The managers should, therefore, enhance the environment through protection of the wildlife, restoration of habitats, and ecologically friendly activities to retain the quality level that the eco-tourists desire. The good relationship between SAS and satisfaction also means that the tourists need to be secure. The development and dissemination of clear safety guidelines, the management of environmental hazards, and the retention of safety during eco-tourism activities are critical in the development of security among visitors. Finally, the insignificance of PAS suggests that eco-tourists attach less importance to traditional commercial services and attach greater importance to authentic, low-impact experiences. Eco-tourism destinations should focus more on giving educational programs, hands-on conservation activities, and interaction with native communities, rather than focusing on luxurious accommodations or high-end services. By aligning their offerings with the values of eco-tourism, destination managers can create more meaningful and sustainable experiences that resonate with eco-tourists, fostering long-term satisfaction, and encouraging repeat visits.
Managers of eco-tourism destinations in Vietnam can benefit from several insights: Accessibility should be improved through sustainable transport options without compromising environmental integrity. Local community involvement should be deepened through training in eco-guiding, conservation communication, and hospitality. Resource conservation should remain a top priority, including habitat preservation and biodiversity education for tourists. Rather than overinvesting in luxury services, destinations should offer immersive, low-impact experiences that reflect eco-tourism values.
Conclusion
This study examined the key determinants of tourist satisfaction at eco-tourism destinations in Vietnam using a PLS-SEM approach. The results confirm that DA, LAS, RA, SAS significantly contribute to tourist satisfaction, while PAS do not demonstrate a statistically significant effect.
These findings contribute theoretically to the literature by confirming the transition in eco-tourism from product-oriented to environmental value, social interaction, and experience authenticity-focused approach. The lack of significance associated with PAS jeopardizes traditional models of tourism satisfaction and indicates the direction toward context-based modeling in sustainable tourism research.
From a practical standpoint, the study highlights the need to upgrade the access infrastructure, develop community involvement, and enhance environmental conservation as fundamental approaches to improve visitor satisfaction.
In spite of these contributions, the study is not exempt from its own set of limitations. First, the research specifically focuses on the eco-tourism destination in Vietnam, so the findings can hardly be generalized to other countries or regions which may differ considerably in terms of environmental, cultural, and socio-economic conditions. Future studies might want to consider the ability of Destination Accessibility and Locals and Staff across various eco-tourism geographies and degrees of infrastructure development. Further, this helps in illustrating where the differences in scores across different sub-constructs stand about the overall satisfaction of the visitors with the holistic concept of tourism satisfaction. The voices represented by this research preclude any attempts to include perceptions from other essential stakeholders, like local communities, tourism operators, and government officials. Thereby, a range of perspectives is likely to enhance the understanding of the eco-tourism experience and satisfaction level. A multi-stakeholder approach may involve interviews or questionnaires from both tourists and local stakeholders and reveal diverging priorities and experiences in such research in the future. In fact, that important to comprehend from both perspectives of the local community and the service providers as eco-tourism satisfaction comes about. Furthermore, although qualitative methods such as interviews could have provided deeper contextual insights into tourist experiences and motivations, this study was limited to quantitative data only. Future research is encouraged to adopt mixed-methods approaches to enrich the understanding of eco-tourism satisfaction from both statistical and narrative perspectives. The third limitation involves this research design, following a cross-section pattern, which hence assesses satisfaction only at one particular moment. This approach limits the ability to assess the long-term effects of eco-tourism experiences and how satisfaction evolves with repeated visits. Longitudinal studies could track satisfaction over time to explore how it changes with repeat visits or with changes in destination management, such as improved infrastructure or the introduction of new eco-tourism initiatives. This would go a long way in depicting the long-term impacts and would also gain an understanding of how ecotourism destinations can strive toward long-term visitor satisfaction and loyalty. Lastly, the research has identified Resources, Locals and Staff, and Security and Safety as important factors, yet it does not investigate other factors may that contribute to satisfaction, including tourists’ motivations, environmental values, or previous eco-tourism experiences. Indeed, further research may focus on how these characteristics affect the level of satisfaction and decision-making process in eco-tourism. Gaining an understanding of the role that eco-tourism motivations and environmental values play could result in managers being provided with more tools for adapting marketing strategies and service provision to meet the needs of different types of eco-tourists.
In general, the study provides valuable insight to the expanding literature on eco-tourism satisfaction and provides actionable recommendations for the sustainable development of eco-destinations, especially in developing economies such as Vietnam.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the eco-tourists who participated in this research, and the management teams at Cuc Phuong, Cat Tien, and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Parks for facilitating data collection. We are also grateful to the reviewers and editorial board of SAGE Open for their constructive feedback, which significantly improved the quality of this paper.
Ethical Considerations
This study, titled “Understanding Eco-Tourism Satisfaction: A Structural Equation Modeling Examination of Critical Determinants,” did not require ethical approval as it did not involve direct interaction with human participants or the collection of identifiable private information. The research was conducted through anonymous surveys where participants voluntarily provided their responses without revealing personal data. No interventions or interactions with individuals occurred, and the study strictly adhered to ethical research practices in line with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in this study. Before participating in the survey, all respondents were provided with clear information about the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Participants gave their voluntary consent either in written or verbal form, and their anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained throughout the research process.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.