Exploring Tourist Behavior in Active Sports Tourism: An Analysis of the Mediating Role of Emotions and Moderating Role of Surfing Identification

Abstract

Despite increased attention toward sports tourist experiences, the concept of natural soundscapes and memorable tourism experience (MTE) are under-researched topics of study in sports tourism literature. This study explores the structural relationship between natural soundscapes, MTE, emotions, and destination loyalty in the context of active sports tourism. Furthermore, it investigates the mediating effects of emotions between “natural soundscapes and destination loyalty” and “MTE and destination loyalty” and examines the moderating effects of surfing identification on the relationships between “natural soundscapes and destination loyalty,”“MTE and destination loyalty,” and “emotions and destination loyalty.” The results indicate that there is a positive impact of (a) natural soundscapes on emotions and destination loyalty, (b) MTE on emotions and destination loyalty, and (c) emotions on destination loyalty. Moreover, emotions were found to partially mediate the aforementioned relationships and surfing identification moderated the aforementioned paths. Positioning natural soundscapes as a novel active sports tourism attractor and emphasizing the importance of MTE and emotions as important antecedents of sporting destination loyalty, when sports tourists were interested and partook physically and actively in sports, the aforementioned relationships were stronger. This study presents the theoretical and managerial implications of these results.

Keywords

natural soundscapes memorable tourism experience emotions sports identification active sports tourism

Previous studies on sports tourism indicate that tourists’ commitment to a destination, also known as destination loyalty, is an essential factor concerning the survival of the fittest and future success of a general or sporting destination (Jeong et al., 2019; Krishna & Schwarz, 2014; Lv et al., 2020). Building long-term relationships with tourists can be regarded as a less costly approach than attracting new tourists (Jeong, Kim, & Yu, 2020). Reichheld (1996) noted that a 5% increase in customer retention can generate 25% to 95% profit growth across a variety of industries. Similarly, Assael (1984, p. 47) stated that “success depends not on the first purchase but on repurchase, and it is unlikely that any brand can survive over time without some degree of loyalty.” If tourists feel a strong attachment to a destination, they will likely revisit with friends and family or disseminate positive word-of-mouth (WOM) reports about their memorable experiences via social media platforms such as Instagram, Meta, or YouTube (Jeong et al., 2019; Munar & Jacobsen, 2014). These tourists’ behaviors are useful in promoting destinations with little effort required from marketers. Thus, destination marketers must explore factors that improve destination loyalty (Jeong & Kim, 2019a).

In the context of tourist destinations, many existing studies have examined the antecedents of destination loyalty, such as destination image (Chung & Chen, 2018; Jeong & Kim, 2019b), motivation (Sato, Kim et al., 2018), service or event quality (Jeong & Kim, 2019a; Kumar et al., 2019), perceived value (Sato, Gipson et al., 2018), and place attachment (Patwardhan et al., 2020), which are common topics in tourism research. In recent years, identifying “natural soundscapes” and “memorable tourism experience” (MTE) in determining loyalty has become an important tourism research topic that has attracted scholarly attention (Kankhuni & Ngwira, 2022). A destination soundscape is the key component of a tourism system and contributes to forming an unforgettable tourist experience (Liu et al., 2016, 2018). This is because the soundscape could (1) be the main attraction itself that tourists mainly consume, for example, in music tourism where tourists attend K-pop concerts, piano recitals, operas, or classical music events, and (2) help tourists create a sense of a place (Briassoulis, 2002; Liu et al., 2013), for instance, if tourists enjoy surfing while listening to the sound of waves, they can feel refreshed. Additionally, the concept of MTE is currently receiving increased attention from tourism scholars (Hosseini et al., 2023). As all of the experiences that tourists have at a destination reflect the cognitive and affective benefits that they value (Zhang et al., 2018), deciding whether or not to revisit or recommend a destination depends on their positive and memorable experiences (Marschall, 2012). Therefore, MTE as a way for sporting destinations to achieve sustainable development should be considered as an important component of future success of the destinations (Akkuş & Güllüce, 2016).

To better understand the relationships between “natural soundscapes and destination loyalty” and “MTE and destination loyalty,” this study focuses on the mediating role of emotions elicited by tourism experiences. As emotions are ubiquitous in the various stages of the tourist experience (Aho, 2001), the importance of emotions is now widely recognized (Bonnefoy-Claudet & Ghantous, 2013). For example, at the pre-travel stage, emotions regarding past travel experiences influence destination choice processes (Chuang, 2007); during a trip, emotions can evoke on a day-to-day basis due to unique and extraordinary experiences; at the post-consumption stage, emotions play a key role in improving satisfaction (Pestana et al., 2020) and loyalty (Godovykh & Tasci, 2021). Moreover, in consumer theory, emotions are treated as having an important mediating role.

To make a clear contribution or significant information to tourism studies related to natural soundscapes and MTE, this study examines the moderating role of surfing identification. The concept of identification is widely recognized as an important moderating variable in understanding sports consumer behavior (A. Jensen et al., 2018; Yim & Byon, 2018). Many studies in sports marketing or tourism have focused on team identification (Cho et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2017), which has been viewed as a sports consumer’s psychological connection or attachment to his or her favorite sports team (Wann, 1997); few attempts have been made to explore sports identification, which is defined as an individual’s psychological connection or attachment to his or her favorite sports. In this study, tourists who have high surfing identification are more likely to surf for a long time, while those with low surfing identification may have less surfing experience. Thus, if surfing identification can moderate the paths among research variables, then marketers can segment surfing tourists according to their level of identification using different marketing strategies. Under high-identification conditions, marketers might concentrate on promoting valuable benefits to surfers such as discounts and various events, however, under low-identification conditions, marketers may be required to explain many advantages of playing surfing and further publicize the safety of surfing.

Accordingly, the present study examines the structural relationship between natural soundscapes, MTE, emotions, and destination loyalty in the context of sports tourism. Furthermore, we investigate the mediating effects of emotions between “natural soundscapes and destination loyalty” and “MTE and destination loyalty.” Finally, we explore the moderating effects of surfing identification on these relationships.

Review of Literature

Active Sports Tourism

Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries and sports tourism acts as a core component of the tourism industry as it makes an essential contribution to the local economy (Deery & Jago, 2005; Jeong & Kim, 2019c). Sports tourism may be defined as “leisure-based travel that takes individuals temporarily away from their mundane life to participate in physical activities, or to watch a sporting event, or to visit or venerate a sport attraction such as a sports hall of fame, sports museums or home stadiums of famed professional sports teams” (Gibson, 1998a, p. 49). Therefore, it is generally recognized that sports tourism can be divided into three broad categories: active sports tourism, passive or event sports tourism, and nostalgia sports tourism. Active sports tourism is when tourists actively or passively engage in competitive or recreational activities such as surfing, canoeing, golf, skiing, cycling, paragliding, hiking, and mountaineering while on vacation (Deery et al., 2004; Gibson, 1998b). Passive or event sports tourism is when tourists spectate at sporting events such as the Olympic games, World Cup, and other smaller events including regular sports matches in professional sports leagues. The key difference between these two types of sports tourism is that active tourists take part in sports as “athletes” whereas passive or event tourists watch sports as “fans” (Gibson et al., 2018). The primary purpose of tourists participating in active sports tourism is to improve mental and physical health, relieve stress, improve self-confidence, meet personal goals, feel refreshed, and compete with others (Jeong & Kim, 2019b). Among various sports events, surfing is increasingly recognized as a sport that satisfies these tourist needs. For this reason, surfing tourism is considered an essential source of earnings and employment in communities and destinations globally (Towner & Milne, 2017). Baker (2006, p. 1) mentioned that “surfing tourism in the Mentawais is undergoing a rapid and far-reaching transformation that will change the islands, the lifestyle of the local people and surfers’ experiences of the Mentawais forever.”

Early research on active sports tourism were mainly focused on the “what” of active sports tourism and the behavior and preference of active sports tourists. However, despite researchers’ efforts to understand their behavior and preference, the level of explanation was rudimentary (Gibson et al., 2018). Thus, based on various consumer theories, recent studies try to understand tourists’ behavior and preference. For example, Jeong, Kim and Kim (2020) explored active sports tourist behaviors by adopting stimulus-organism-response theory. In addition, with the growth in opportunities for active sport tourists to participate in small-scale sport events for non-commercial purposes as amateur athletes, recent attention is being paid to understanding experience of active event sport tourists. For instance, Perić et al. (2018) analyzed the importance of the natural environment and safety and security issues and gathered from active participants of small-scale sport events. Likewise, a study conducted by Plunkett and Brooks (2018) explored the relationship between satisfaction, intentions, and post-trip communication behavior of active event sport tourists. In summary, the active sports tourism literature has evolved during the past several decades and unflagging efforts to understand active sport tourists’ behavior could establish a solid body of knowledge.

Natural Soundscape

It is believed that the concept of soundscapes was first proposed by Bartle (1977), who stressed the importance of auditory perceptions. In 2014, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 2014, p. 12913-1) accepted the definition of soundscapes as an “acoustic environment perceived or experienced and/or understood by a person or people.” In other words, ISO used the term “person or people” instead of “creatures,” which further emphasized the human perception of an acoustic environment (He et al., 2019). However, acoustic environment differs from soundscape. The former focused on the environment shaped by a variety of sounds, while the latter referred to human perception associated with one’s memory and emotions (Aletta et al., 2016). In the tourism context, a soundscape is depicted as the acoustic environment perceived by tourists from the first day they arrive at a strange destination to the time they leave the destination (Liu et al., 2018). As tourists are exposed to different types of sounds during their tour, they cannot be avoided under any sound circumstances, and sound influences their whole tourism experience. A soundscape can be evaluated from four perspectives: source (artificial–natural), pace (lively–calm), volume (loud–quiet), and region (local–exotic) (Liu et al., 2018). The current study focuses on natural soundscapes that include elements such as birdsong, the chirp of a cicada, the sound of rain, a waterfall, or wind, and rolls of thunder; such soundscapes are an indispensable element of tourist destinations—tourists are influenced by natural soundscapes whether or not they are conscious of it. Surfing tourists are forced to hear the sound of waves and seagulls at a particular destination, which can contribute to making them feel refreshed and increase their feelings of tranquility (Hu et al., 2020). According to Pheasant et al. (2010), in tranquil environments, people can restore their health, and natural sounds can help people overcome stress-related psychological illnesses (Cerwén et al., 2016). Thus, natural soundscapes can affect tourists’ experiences and perceptions and, in turn, influence positive outcomes variables such as satisfaction and attitudes. However, empirical research on natural soundscapes in sports tourism is lacking.

MTE

Traditionally, companies or organizations have focused on functional product attributes based on mass production, thereby adopting producer-centered perspectives. However, after Pine and Gilmore (1998) explained “the experience economy,” the importance of consumers’ experiences began to be widely acknowledged throughout academia and industry; thus, organizations began to adopt consumer-centered perspectives. Consumers tend to seek experiences that stimulate their minds and dazzle their senses, with a particular focus on experiential products or services (Schmitt, 1999). According to Stamboulis and Skayannis (2003), tourists also tend to actively pursue on-site experiences through continuous interactions with tourist destinations during their trip (Stamboulis & Skayannis, 2003). Tourist experience refers to “a subjective state of mind derived from personal feelings and emotions during a trip” (Wei et al., 2019, p. 620). Whereas ordinary or dull on-site experiences are short-lived and may not build tourist loyalty to the destination, extraordinary, remarkable, and unforgettable experiences can be long-lived, touching tourists’ hearts and, in turn, increasing their sense of loyalty to a destination—this is central to the sustainable development of tourism destinations.

Thus, scholars have begun to recognize the importance of long-lasting visions in tourists’ minds. This long-term memory is largely categorized as “explicit memory,” which is intentional and requires effort, and “implicit memory,” which is unconscious and effortless (Brewer & Pani, 1983). Generally, explicit memory has received more attention in the psychology context than implicit memory as explicit memory deals with memories involving personal experiences and knowledge that is consciously remembered (Stangor & Walinga, 2014). There is also declarative memory, which is a subset of explicit memory that consists of recalled or declared facts and events concerning an individual (Eichenbaum, 1997). Declarative memory comprises semantic and episodic memory. Tulving (1972) first indicated the difference in meaning between “semantic” and “episodic.” In the tourism context, while tourists’ semantic memory represents the storage of tourists’ previous factual knowledge of destinations (J. H. Kim, 2014), tourists’ episodic memory refers to their recollections of specific and unique experiences and events (Farmaki, 2021), which can be treated as their MTE. MTE can be seen as “a tourism experience positively remembered and recalled after the events have occurred” (J. H. Kim et al., 2012, p. 13). To examine the direct and indirect effects of MTE, the present study adopts the scale by J. H. Kim et al. (2012), which is the most widely cited in the literature and confirmed by previous studies for validity and reliability (J. H. Kim, 2018). Additionally, in the current study, since the cities of Yangyang and Gangneung in South Korea, which are loved by many surfing tourists, strive to provide tourists with unforgettable tourism experiences, such as concerts and barbecues alongside surfing lessons, traveling to those cities could trigger heightened MTE in tourists.

Emotions

Despite recognizing the key role of emotions in tourist behavior, there is no single accepted definition of emotions (Carneiro et al., 2019). Emotions are psychological or affective states expressed by episodes or thoughts of intense feelings linked to a specific referent (such as a person or event) that stimulates a particular response (Cohen & Areni, 1991). Emotions have phenomenological tones that involve physiological processes and are often expressed physically (e.g., posture, gestures, facial features) (Yang et al., 2011). In a touristic setting, tourists become excited when they are surprised by a special event, unique dish, or scenic attraction (Bustard et al., 2019; Piramanayagam et al., 2020). Thus, today, it is widely acknowledged that tourists evaluate tourism products, a combination of goods and services that are demanded by tourists, based on emotional assessments of all the clues they interact with during their trip (Biswas et al., 2021; Bonnefoy-Claudet & Ghantous, 2013). Otherwise stated, emotional aspects form a significant part of the tourism service encounter and are considered an important component of the current agenda for tourism marketers, who consider whether or not emotional benefits are at the heart of the service (Price et al., 1995). Positive emotions play a key role in improving tourists’ sense of satisfaction, as stated by Price et al. (1995, p. 86): “the consumer is motivated by the affective benefits offered by the service.”

The environmental psychology literature dichotomizes emotions into two core theoretical approaches: valence (positive/negative) and arousal (high/low) (Symeonidou & Kuhlmann, 2022). According to Nicolle and Goel (2013, p. 263), valence relates to “the pleasantness (or unpleasantness) of an object or experience,” which indicates that emotions intimately linked with pleasantness are mostly connected to approach response, while emotions directly linked with unpleasantness are commonly coupled with avoidance response. In tourism literature, valence can be described as “the degree to which the consumer feels good or happy with the surrounding environment” (Bigné & Andreu, 2004, p. 684). Arousal, however, “involves an attention orienting response, which affects our physiological state and action readiness, but which is generally thought to be undirected/non-referential” (Nicolle & Goel, 2013, p. 264). In tourism literature, arousal reflects “the degree to which the person feels activated, stimulated, or active” (Bigné & Andreu, 2004, p. 684). Previous tourism studies have attempted to measure tourists’ emotions using different scales in conjunction with the two affective dimensions of valence and arousal. For instance, Yang et al. (2011) identified four clusters of emotions for festival tourists: happy-unhappy, delighted-disappointed, pleased-annoyed, and entertained-bored. Prayag et al. (2017) recognized three dimensions of emotions, including joy, love, and positive surprise, which were rated by respondents according to the extent to which they were experienced, with responses ranging from “not at all” to “very much.” Since the measurement of emotions in tourism has favored the valence-based approach, the present study adopts and adapts the valence scale.

Sport Identification

Generally, identification can be viewed as the process of connecting oneself with other persons or groups and, in the context of organizational studies, the concept has gained much attention as it is an important driver to a formal association between employees and organizations (Rather et al., 2020). Social identification denotes “the perceived oneness with, or connectedness to some human aggregate” (Gwinner & Bennett, 2008, p. 414). It refers to the psychological process of individuals bonding with their in-group which they believe has good qualities compared to the out-group. Evidence indicates that identifying with a group enhances self-esteem and health outcomes and enhances one’s sense of belonging and social support (Gwinner & Bennett, 2008; Steffens et al., 2021). As a particular instance of social identification, sports identification is when “the object to which one identifies is a particular sport” (Gwinner & Bennett, 2008, p. 414). Although there have been many sports social science studies related to identification in the context of team identification (e.g., a favorite sports team), to understand sports consumer behavior (Cho et al., 2020; Wann & Goeke, 2018), sports identification must be more deeply researched. Consumers interested in an individual (as opposed to a team) sport are likely to have a strong association with the sport overall and a weak association with specific individuals that come and go within the sport (Gwinner & Bennett, 2008). Thus, their identification reflects statements such as “I am a fan of soccer” rather than statements such as “I am a fan of Heung-Min Son or Tottenham Hotspur in the English premier league.”

Research Hypotheses

In consumer marketing research, music plays a pivotal role in generating consumers’ emotional states (Jiang, 2022). Hearing one’s favorite music generally evokes positive emotions (love, joy, excitement, happiness) while less-liked music often elicits negative emotions (frustration, anger, fear, emptiness) (Kantono et al., 2019). In the context of tourism, some studies have also indicated that environmental stimuli in a destination, such as music, are a predictor of emotional states. For example, Min et al. (2020) examined the effects of music on tourists’ emotions (e.g., pleasure and arousal) and behavioral intentions, and showed that music perception directly affects pleasure and arousal. Based on the extended SOR model, a recent study conducted by Jiang (2022) tested the relationships between cognitive images of natural soundscapes, pleasure, arousal, and behavioral intentions, and found that natural soundscapes significantly promote tourists’ senses of pleasure and arousal. Moreover, some studies in the tourism context have noted that sound may influence tourists’ destination loyalty. For instance, Lv et al. (2020) investigated the unique role played by all five types of sensory impressions (visual, aural, olfactory, gustatory, and haptic) in understanding destination loyalty and provided evidence that sensory impressions are related to destination loyalty. Kankhuni and Ngwira (2022) found statistically significant relationships between tourist engagement, natural soundscapes, MTE, satisfaction, and electronic WOM and demonstrated that natural soundscapes are a key factor in stimulating electronic WOM. Given the preceding theoretical rationale, the following hypotheses are formulated:

H_1-1: Natural soundscapes positively influence emotions.

H_1-2: Natural soundscapes positively influence destination loyalty.

Although MTE has been extensively studied in tourism literature, the relationship between MTE and emotions has been ignored by many researchers. However, we can infer that there may be a positive relationship between MTE and emotions through previous studies by analyzing the relationship between tourism experiences and emotions. A body of research in tourism and hospitality has established the relevance of tourism experiences in understanding tourists’ emotions. Ali et al. (2018) proposed a model to assess visitor experience and its effect on tourists’ senses of delight, satisfaction, and loyalty, revealing that visitor experience influenced customer delight. Kastenholz et al. (2018) examined the relationships between tourism experience, arousal, memory, and satisfaction; the results showed that tourism experience dimensions of education and esthetics act as antecedents of tourist arousal. Additionally, researchers have reported a positive relationship between MTE and loyalty behaviors. For example, J. H. Kim (2018) developed a theoretical model of the influence of MTE on revisit and WOM intentions and suggested that MTE significantly affects revisit and WOM intentions. H. Chen and Rahman (2018) examined the relationship between visitor engagement, cultural contact, MTE, and destination loyalty and provided support for existing findings by indicating that MTE influences revisit and recommendation intentions. Thus, the following hypotheses are developed:

H_2-1: MTE positively influences emotions.

H_2-2: MTE positively influences destination loyalty.

There has been increased focus on the effect of emotions on loyalty behaviors. For instance, A recent study by Wu and Lai (2021) explored to what extent 360-degree virtual mountain walking tours promote audiences’ intentions to take a real walking tour; the results showed that enjoyment had a significant influence on intentions to take a walking tour. Based on the SOR model, Peng et al. (2017) explored the influence of restaurant stimuli on diners’ emotions and loyalty in the context of hospitality management and found that when customers felt pleased, excited, and comfortable in a restaurant, they were more likely to recommend it to others or revisit it. Abubakar and Mavondo (2014) investigated the impact of physical environments, social factors, and emotions (e.g., joy, happiness, excitement) on satisfaction and positive WOM; their results suggested that emotions are a strong predictor of positive WOM. Hence, the following hypotheses are developed:

H₃: Emotions positively influence destination loyalty.

Regarding the mediating effects of emotions on the relationships between “natural soundscapes and destination loyalty” and “MTE and destination loyalty,” as previously discussed, natural soundscapes and MTE can influence emotions and destination loyalty (Ali et al., 2018; Jiang, 2022; Kankhuni & Ngwira, 2022; J. H. Kim, 2018) and emotions are likely to influence destination loyalty (Peng et al., 2017; Wu & Lai, 2021). Moreover, previous studies have used emotions as a mediator. According to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), stimuli can influence emotions and, in turn, influence consumer response. Peng et al. (2017) challenged the mediating role of positive emotions in the relationship between environmental stimuli variables and loyalty; their results revealed that emotions either partially or fully mediated the impacts of stimuli variables on loyalty. Likewise, A. Chen et al. (2015) indicated that emotions are a key intervening factor in the relationship between stimuli and loyalty. To further examine the ability of emotions to mediate stimuli and responses, the current study explores the following hypotheses:

H_4-1: Emotions mediate the influence of natural soundscapes on destination loyalty.

H_4-2: Emotions mediate the influence of MTE on destination loyalty.

Regarding the moderating effects of surfing identification on the relationships between “natural soundscapes and destination loyalty,”“MTE and destination loyalty,” and “emotions and destination loyalty,” as previously discussed, natural soundscapes, MTE, and emotions can influence destination loyalty (Abubakar & Mavondo, 2014; H. Chen & Rahman, 2018; Lv et al., 2020). Stevens and Rosenberger (2012) empirically tested the relationships between fan identification, sports involvement, and fan loyalty and indicated that identification plays a key role in enhancing loyalty; these results are consistent with those of Rather et al. (2020), whose study demonstrated a strong influence of destination brand identification on destination loyalty. However, previous studies have not reported that natural soundscapes, MTE, and emotions are related to identification. Furthermore, it has been widely reported in the context of sports marketing that identification exerts a moderating influence on the relationships between research variables. For instance, A. Jensen et al. (2018) explored the moderating effect of identification on return on investment from sponsor brand integration; Ahn et al. (2013) examined the moderating effect of team identification on attitude and purchase intention of team-logoed merchandise. Hence, the present study proposes the following hypotheses:

H_5-1: Surfing identification moderates the influence of natural soundscapes on destination loyalty.

H_5-2: Surfing identification moderates the influence of MTE on destination loyalty.

H_5-3: Surfing identification moderates the influence of emotions on destination loyalty.

Based on the literature, the present study applied the conceptual models illustrated in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1.

Proposed conceptual model 1 (The primary effect).

Figure 2.

Proposed conceptual model 2 (The moderating effect).

Method

Participants

Data for the present study were collected from surfing tourists who visited Yangyang and Gangneung, famous surfing tourism destinations in South Korea. The author and two trained research assistants administered a face-to-face questionnaire-based survey at beaches and near surf shops from July 1 to 5 in 2022 using a convenience sampling method. We approached the tourists at the end of or during their 2-day stay and asked them to participate in the survey. The questionnaires were collected after careful checking by surveyors to ensure they had been properly completed. A total of 320 questionnaires were randomly administered and 300 valid questionnaires were collected for data analysis. The questionnaires were split almost equally between males (55.7%, n = 167) and females (44.3%, n = 133). Most of the respondents were aged between 20 and 29 (49.3%, n = 148) and most had surfing experience of 2 to 4 years (37.3%, n = 112).

Measurement

The questionnaire included questions about natural soundscapes, MTE, emotions, surfing identification, destination loyalty, and demographics. All the scales were borrowed from the literature and have been validated widely in existing studies. The variable of natural soundscapes was assessed using four items borrowed from Jiang et al. (2018) and Kankhuni and Ngwira (2022). MTE was assessed using four items adopted from Kankhuni and Ngwira (2022) and J. H. Kim (2018). The variable of emotions was assessed using four items derived from Ryu and Jang (2007) and Yang et al. (2011). Surfing identification was assessed using four items suggested by Gwinner and Bennett (2008) and Seonwoo and Jeong (2021). Destination loyalty was assessed using four items adapted from J. H. Kim (2018) and J. H. Kim et al. (2010). A 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was utilized in the study. The items are listed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results.

Scale items	Standardized loadings	β-CMV	CR	AVE	Cronbach’s α
Natural soundscapes
The natural sounds (e.g., the sound of waves) of Yangyang or Gangneung are in harmony with the landscapes in scenic areas	0.725	0.086	0.893	0.679	.909
The natural sounds (e.g., the sound of waves) of Yangyang or Gangneung improve the leisurely atmosphere	0.953	0.029
The natural sounds (e.g., the sound of waves) of Yangyang or Gangneung highlight the natural charm of scenic spots	0.893	0.034
The scenic areas of Yangyang or Gangneung are more interesting because of the natural sounds (e.g., the sound of waves) Citation: Jiang et al. (2018), and Kankhuni and Ngwira (2022).	0.803	0.035
Memorable tourism experience
I really enjoyed this surfing tourism experience	0.964	0.048	0.954	0.838	.929
I was revitalized by this surfing tourism experience	0.845	0.064
I learned something about myself during this surfing tourism experience	0.778	0.027
I experienced something new (e.g., food, how to surf, activity, etc.) during this surfing tourism experience Citation: Kankhuni and Ngwira (2022), and J. H. Kim (2018)	0.922	0.089
Emotions
The overall feeling I get from this surfing tourism experience (unhappy-happy)	0.946	0.04	0.948	0.822	.851
The overall feeling I get from this surfing tourism experience (disappointed-delighted)	0.873	0.04
The overall feeling I get from this surfing tourism experience (annoyed-pleased)	0.862	0.041
The overall feeling I get from this surfing tourism experience (bored-entertained) Citation: Ryu and Jang (2007) and Yang et al. (2011)	0.935	0.03
Surfing identification
First and foremost, I consider myself a surfing fan	0.869	0.044	0.960	0.859	.888
Personally, surfing matters to me	0.891	0.052
Surfing is my favorite extreme sport	0.918	0.075
Personally, surfing means a lot to me Citation: Gwinner and Bennett (2008) and Seonwoo and Jeong (2021)	0.727	0.066
Destination loyalty
I plan to revisit Yangyang or Gangneung next year	0.782	0.042	0.876	0.640	.882
I will try to revisit Yangyang or Gangneung next year	0.741	0.087
I will recommend the places I have visited during this trip to my friends/family	0.852	0.064
I will convince my friends/family to visit Yangyang or Gangneung Citation: J. H. Kim (2018) and J. H. Kim et al. (2010)	0.859	0.04

X²/df = 2.572, NFI = 0.942, RFI = 0.912, TLI = 0.941, CFI = 0.966, RMSEA = 0.064.

Data Analysis

Data collected from the questionnaire were computed using SPSS and AMOS software packages. SPSS was used to conduct the frequency, correlation, and reliability analyses. AMOS was used to perform confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM). Jamovi was used to conduct a simple slope analysis for moderators.

Results

Validity and Reliability

The current study employed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with maximum likelihood estimation to confirm the dimensionality of the measurement model using AMOS. The goodness-of-fit indices for the CFA (x²/df = 2.572, NFI = 0.942, RFI = 0.912, TLI = 0.941, CFI = 0.966, RMSEA = 0.064) were all within the recommended ranges (Hooper et al., 2008).

To confirm convergent validity, the present study calculated factor loadings, construct reliability (CR), and averaged variance extracted (AVE) based on the measurement model. As shown in Table 1, all factor loadings (0.725–0.964) were statistically significant (p < .001) and greater than the cutoff value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2010). All CR values (0.876–0.960) exceeded the minimum requirement of 0.7 and all AVE values (0.640–0.859) exceeded the recommended value of 0.5 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Since all the CR and AVE values met the minimum threshold, convergent validity was established.

For the discriminant validity to be considered satisfactory, the diagonal elements in Table 2 needed to be greater than the off-diagonal elements, which was the case. Comparing all correlation coefficients with the square roots of AVE demonstrated satisfactory discriminant validity.

Table 2.

Correlations Between Constructs.

Construct	Natural soundscapes	MTE	Emotions	Surfing identification	Destination loyalty
Natural soundscapes	0.824
MTE	0.430**	0.915
Emotions	0.504**	0.585**	0.907
Surfing identification	0.327**	0.433**	0.589**	0.927
Destination loyalty	0.598**	0.577**	0.536**	0.376**	0.939

p < .01. The bold entries are the square roots of AVE

Reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alpha) for natural soundscapes, MTE, emotions, surfing identification, and destination loyalty (0.851–0.929) were above the recommended threshold of 0.7, showing that the measures were reliable (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) (see Table 1).

In addition, the present study tested a common method variance (CMV) test that affects the results of the measurement model (Podsakoff et al., 2003). CMV can be defined as “systematic error variance shared among variables measured with and introduced as a function of the same method and/or source.”Richardson et al. (2009, p. 763). The current study tested a common latent factor (CLF) to capture the common variance among all observed variables in the measurement model. As shown in Table 1, the differences between standardized regression weights before and after adding the CLF were all less than 0.200, showing that all observed variables avoid common method bias.

Model Fit and Structural Model

The present study employed SEM to examine the hypothesized relationships. All goodness-of-fit indices for the model indicated an acceptable model fit (x²/df = 2.672, IFI = 0.904, CFI = 0.903, RMSEA = 0.065). The current study used this model to explore hypotheses 1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 2-2, and 3. As shown in Figure 3, the relationship between natural soundscapes and emotions (H1-1) was significant (0.217, p < .001). Significant paths emerged from soundscapes to destination loyalty (0.458, p < .001), supporting H1-2. MTE had a significant positive effect on emotions (0.536, p < .001), supporting H2-1. The path coefficient from MTE to destination loyalty was positive and statistically significant (0.316, p < .001), supporting H2-2. H3 was supported as emotions had a significant positive relationship with destination loyalty (0.141, p < .05).

Figure 3.

Structural model results.

Mediating Effect

To investigate the mediating effects of emotions, the present study followed the general guidelines of Baron and Kenny (1986). We also tested the significance of the indirect effects using the bootstrap procedure by Preacher and Hayes (2008). The results are shown in Table 3. Regarding H4-1, the direct effect without the meditator was significant (0.491, p < .001). The relationship coefficient decreased from 0.491 to 0.458 and was significant when the variable of emotions was included as a mediator. The indirect effect of natural soundscapes on destination loyalty via emotions was significant, while the confidence interval did not include zero (CI = [0.014, 0.060]), which indicated partial mediation, supporting H4-1. Regarding H4-2, the direct effect without the meditator was significant (0.388, p < .001). The relationship coefficient decreased from 0.388 to 0.316 and was significant when the variable of emotions was included as a mediator. The indirect effect of MTE on destination loyalty via emotions was significant while the confidence interval did not include zero (CI = [0.027, 0.118]), which indicated partial mediation, supporting H4-2.

Table 3.

Mediating Effects of Emotions.

Relationships	Direct effects without a mediator	Direct effect with a mediator (CI)	Indirect effects (CI)	Mediation hypotheses
Natural soundscapes – Emotions – Destination loyalty (H4-1)	0.491***	0.458** [0.368, 0.549]	0.031* [0.014, 0.060]	Supported (Partial mediation)
MTE – Emotions – Destination loyalty (H4-2)	0.388***	0.316** [0.225, 0.402]	0.076* [0.027, 0.118]	Supported (Partial mediation)

***

p < .001. **p < .01. *p < .05; bootstrap confidence in parentheses.

Moderating Effect

As hypothesized in H5-1, natural soundscapes (Z = 11.09, p < .001), surfing identification (Z = 5.54, p < .001), and their interaction (Z = 2.36, p < .05) had significant effects on destination loyalty. To further analyze the moderating effect of surfing identification, the current study divided values into three groups: low (mean − 1SD), average, and high surfing identification (mean + 1SD). The present study performed a simple slope analysis to determine whether the moderating variable (surfing identification) influenced the relationship between the predictor (natural soundscapes) and dependent (destination loyalty) variables. The results are shown in Table 4 and Figure 4. The current study found that in all three groups (low, average, and high identification), the variable of natural soundscapes had a significant effect on destination loyalty (Z = 10.93, 4.68, 9.42, respectively; p < .001 in all cases), supporting H5-1.

Table 4.

Moderating Effects of Surfing Identification.

H5-1	Moderation		Estimate	SE	Z	p
		Natural soundscapes	0.448	0.040	11.09	<.001
		Surfing identification	0.418	0.075	5.54	<.001
		Natural soundscapes × Surfing identification	0.225	0.095	2.36	<.05
	Simple slope analysis		Estimate	SE	Z	p
		Average	0.448	0.041	10.93	<.001
		Low (−1SD)	0.328	0.070	4.68	<.001
		High (+1SD)	0.568	0.060	9.42	<.001
H5-2	Moderation		Estimate	SE	Z	p
		MTE	0.644	0.057	11.28	<.001
		Surfing identification	0.443	0.076	5.85	<.001
		MTE × Surfing identification	0.524	0.099	5.28	<.001
	Simple slope analysis		Estimate	SE	Z	p
		Average	0.644	0.059	10.85	<.001
		Low (1SD)	0.365	0.072	5.11	<.001
		High (+1SD)	0.923	0.088	10.47	<.001
H5-3	Moderation		Estimate	SE	Z	p
		Emotions	0.712	0.072	9.84	<.001
		Surfing identification	0.369	0.079	4.65	<.001
		Emotions × Surfing identification	0.610	0.122	5.01	<.001
	Simple slope analysis		Estimate	SE	Z	p
		Average	0.712	0.075	9.53	<.001
		Low (−1SD)	0.388	0.083	4.68	<.001
		High (+1SD)	1.307	0.115	9.06	<.001

Figure 4.

Simple slope plot of the moderating variable for surfing identification (H8).

As hypothesized in H5-2, MTE (Z = 11.28, p < .001), surfing identification (Z = 5.85, p < .001), and their interaction (Z = 5.28, p < .001) had significant effects on destination loyalty. To further analyze the moderating effect of surfing identification, the current study divided values into three groups: low (mean − 1SD), average, and high surfing identification (mean + 1SD). The present study performed a simple slope analysis to determine whether the moderating variable (surfing identification) influenced the relationship between the predictor (MTE) and dependent (destination loyalty) variables. The results are shown in Table 4 and Figure 5. The current study found that in all three groups (low, average, and high identification), MTE had a significant effect on destination loyalty (Z = 10.85, 5.11, 10.47, respectively; p < .001 in all cases), supporting H5-2.

Figure 5.

Simple slope plot of the moderating variable for surfing identification (H9).

As hypothesized in H5-3, emotions (Z = 9.84, p < .001), surfing identification (Z = 4.65, p < .001), and their interaction (Z = 5.01, p < .001) had significant effects on destination loyalty. To further analyze the moderating effect of surfing identification, the current study divided values into three groups: low (mean − 1SD), average, and high surfing identification (mean + 1SD). The present study performed a simple slope analysis to determine whether the moderating variable (surfing identification) influenced the relationship between the predictor (emotions) and dependent (destination loyalty) variables. The results are shown in Table 4 and Figure 6. The current study found that in all three groups (low, average, and high identification), emotions had a significant effect on destination loyalty (Z = 9.53, 4.68, 9.06, respectively; p < .001 in all cases), supporting H5-3.

Figure 6.

Simple slope plot of the moderating variable for surfing identification (H10).

Discussion and Conclusion

In the sports tourism context, the current study reveals that natural soundscapes serve as an environmental stimulus that can induce positive emotions in sports tourists and generate loyalty formation to a particular destination during the sports tourism process. Surprisingly, as mentioned earlier, despite the importance of natural soundscapes in attracting many tourists, there have been few studies on natural soundscapes in the context of sports tourism. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first attempt to apply the concept of natural soundscapes in the context of active sports tourism. The findings indicate that the natural soundscapes perceived by active sports tourists are vital in enhancing emotions and destination loyalty. Since active sports tourists are often in or around nature during their trip, they are naturally influenced by the sounds of nature, which helps them to feel refreshed and comfortable and enables them to perceive the destination as special. These results are in line with those of existing studies (Jiang, 2022; Kankhuni & Ngwira, 2022; Lv et al., 2020; Min et al., 2020). Thus, destination managers should formulate plans for sustainable tourism to preserve nature.

The results corroborate those of previous studies confirming that MTE plays a critical role in the formation of emotions and destination loyalty. Prior research findings argue that MTE is a significant contributor to tourists’ emotions and loyalty (H. Chen & Rahman, 2018; J. H. Kim, 2018), which indicates that if destinations provide tourists with an unforgettable or special tourism experience, they will feel positive emotions and express a willingness to recommend and revisit the destination. This is because the particular experiences that they continually recall include powerful emotions and the memories are committed to their long-term memory which, in turn, influences their future behaviors. Additionally, by integrating natural soundscapes, MTE, emotions, and destination loyalty into a causal model and exploring these factors empirically, the present study provides a comprehensive view to understand the relationships between natural soundscapes, MTE, emotions, and loyalty. Most previous studies can be classified into two main categories: those focusing on natural soundscapes in predicting future intentions or loyalty (Jiang et al., 2018) and those including MTE to predict future intentions or loyalty (J. H. Kim, 2018).

Consistent with the results in previous studies, emotions significantly influenced destination loyalty via natural soundscapes and MTE. Otherwise stated, this study echoes the argument of many researchers who have argued that emotions are a strong predictor of loyalty (Abubakar & Mavondo, 2014; Peng et al., 2017; Wu & Lai, 2021); as tourists derive more pleasure, joy, and excitement from their destination experience, they develop a strong attachment to the place. Thus, the importance of emotions regarding destination loyalty is recognized in active sports tourism contexts. Additionally, the findings reveal that natural soundscapes and MTE indirectly influence destination loyalty and these relationships are mediated by emotions. These results imply that the indirect effects of natural soundscapes and MTE on destination loyalty are realized via the mediating effect of emotions. Surprisingly, despite the importance of both emotions in shaping loyalty and using the SOR model as an organism, previous studies, including recent studies, have failed to explore the mediating effect of emotions on the relationships between stimuli and response factors (Jiang, 2022; Wu & Lai, 2021). Thus, these results could broaden our understanding of destination marketing. Sporting destination managers should create a positive experience for sports tourists; ceaseless efforts that draw a high level of emotional response in enjoying sports will pay off and increase destination loyalty.

From a theoretical perspective, the present study’s most important theoretical contribution is its investigation of the moderating effect of sports identification. The fundamental results of the current study demonstrated that surfing identification moderates the relationships between natural soundscapes and destination loyalty, MTE and destination loyalty, and emotions and destination loyalty. These findings suggest that these relationships are stronger when sports tourists are interested and partake physically and actively in surfing. However, for those less interested and more passive regarding surfing, the relationships are weaker. The current study, more specifically, developed a model that included sports identification as a moderator of the link between these relationships, which is the first step in acknowledging how sports identification affects these relationships for sports tourists and bridging the gap in the literature regarding sports tourism. Thus, this study suggests that sports identification should be treated as an important factor in the sports tourist experience; sporting destination managers must determine various ways of actively involving sports tourists in sports.

From a managerial perspective, the present study has some meaningful implications for sports tourism managers and marketers. First, given that the variable of natural soundscapes positively influences emotions and destination loyalty, it is imperative to maintain existing soundscapes and prevent other sounds from destroying the unique soundscape of scenic areas to enhance tourists’ positive perceptions of natural soundscapes (Jiang et al., 2018). For instance, emphasizing the soothing and relaxing sounds of nature, such as the sound of waves or wind, and controlling the number of boats passing by the beach in some destinations, could offer a heightened soundscape experience for surfing tourists in the process of enjoying surfing. Second, given that MTE and positive emotions positively affect destination loyalty, destination managers should provide surfing tourists with various events, such as surfing competitions and music festivals, beyond the opportunity to simply participate in surfing. The annual Yangyang Surfing Festival in South Korea is famous for surfing competitions and music festivals, with more than 500 participants and 23,000 dollars in prize money. At this festival, singers who are loved by the younger generation entertain the tourists. Third, given that surfing identification moderates the aforementioned relationships, as previously discussed, destination managers must promote valuable benefits to surfers, such as discounts and various events, particularly for high-identification groups. For low-identification groups, it is important to teach tourists how to surf for a low price by seeking financial support from local governments and offering safety education to tourists. There is still a perception that surfing is a dangerous sport (Anderson, 2013); thus, many tourists passively participate in surfing. Destination managers should provide tourists with continuous safety education through cooperation with surfing schools and camps and encourage tourists to follow the advice of lifeguards.

As with all studies, the current study has several limitations that could be addressed in future research. Firstly, this study did not explore antecedents of natural soundscapes. It has been observed in some previous studies that some factors are likely to influence natural soundscapes (Kankhuni & Ngwira, 2022). Thus, future studies are encouraged to examine possible antecedents, such as motivation and destination fascination. Secondly, the present study focused on soundscapes and did not take into consideration other sensory experiences such as taste, smell, sight, or touch. Thus, future studies could expand on this present study by developing multi-dimensional measures to evaluate tourists’ sensory experiences that could contribute to building emotions and destination loyalty. Finally, the current study was conducted in Yanhyang and Gangneung in South Korea; thus, the findings may differ from those concerning other types of destinations and may not be generalizable to other types of destinations. Thus, it would be worthwhile to test the model in different cultural settings.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Yunduk Jeong

References

Abubakar

Mavondo

(2014). Tourism destinations: Antecedents to customer satisfaction and positive word-of-mouth. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(8), 833–864.

Ahn

Suh

Y. I.

Lee

J. K.

Pedersen

P. M.

(2013). Sport fans and their teams’ redesigned logos: An examination of the moderating effect of team identification on attitude and purchase intention of team-logoed merchandise. Journal of Sport Management, 27(1), 11–23.

Aho

S. K.

(2001). Towards a general theory of touristic experiences: Modelling experience process in tourism. Tourism Review, 56(3/4), 33–37.

A. Jensen

Walsh

Cobbs

(2018). The moderating effect of identification on return on investment from sponsor brand integration. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 19(1), 41–57.

Akkuş

Güllüce

A. C.

(2016). Effect of memorable tourism experiences to destination competitiveness: Winter tourist–oriented research. American International Journal of Social Science, 5(4), 65–84.

Aletta

Kang

Axelsson

(2016). Soundscape descriptors and a conceptual framework for developing predictive soundscape models. Landscape and Urban Planning, 149, 65–74.

Ali

Kim

W. G.

Jeon

H. M.

(2018). Make it delightful: Customers’ experience, satisfaction and loyalty in Malaysian theme parks. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 7, 1–11.

Anderson

(2013). Cathedrals of the surf zone: Regulating access to a space of spirituality. Social & Cultural Geography, 14(8), 954–972.

Assael

(1984). Consumer behavior and marketing action. Kent Publishing Company.

10.

Baker

(2006). A decade of surf tourism in the Mentawais. Surfing World Magazine, pp. 110-117.

11.

Baron

R. M.

Kenny

D. A.

(1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.

12.

Bartle

B. K.

(1977). The tuning of the world. Journal of Research in Music Education, 25(4), 291–293.

13.

Bigné

J. E.

Andreu

(2004). Emotions in segmentation: An empirical study. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 682–696.

14.

Biswas

Deb

S. K.

Hasan

A. A. T.

Khandakar

M. S. A.

(2021). Mediating effect of tourists’ emotional involvement on the relationship between destination attributes and tourist satisfaction. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 4(4), 490–510.

15.

Bonnefoy-Claudet

Ghantous

(2013). Emotions’ impact on tourists’ satisfaction with ski resorts: The mediating role of perceived value. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30(6), 624–637.

16.

Brewer

W. F.

Pani

J. R.

(1983). The structure of human memory. In Bower

G. H.

(Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 1–38). Academic Press.

17.

Briassoulis

(2002). Sustainable tourism and the question of the commons. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(4), 1065–1085.

18.

Bustard

J. R. T.

Bolan

Devine

Hutchinson

(2019). The emerging smart event experience: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Tourism Review, 74(1), 116–128.

19.

Carneiro

M. J.

Eusébio

Caldeira

Santos

A. C.

(2019). The influence of eventscape on emotions, satisfaction and loyalty: The case of re-enactment events. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 82, 112–124.

20.

Cerwén

Pedersen

Pálsdóttir

A. M.

(2016). The role of soundscape in nature-based rehabilitation: A patient perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(12), 1229.

21.

Chen

Peng

Hung

K. P.

(2015). The effects of luxury restaurant environments on diners’ emotions and loyalty: Incorporating diner expectations into an extended Mehrabian-Russell model. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(2), 236–260.

22.

Chen

Rahman

(2018). Cultural tourism: An analysis of engagement, cultural contact, memorable tourism experience and destination loyalty. Tourism Management Perspectives, 26, 153–163.

23.

Cho

Joo

Woosnam

K. M.

(2020). Sport tourists’ team identification and revisit intention: Looking at the relationship through a nostalgic lens. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 44(6), 1002–1025.

24.

Chuang

S. C.

(2007). The effects of emotions on the purchase of tour commodities. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 22(1), 1–13.

25.

Chung

J. Y.

Chen

C. C.

(2018). The impact of country and destination images on destination loyalty: A construal-level-theory perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 23(1), 56–67.

26.

Cohen

J. B.

Areni

C. S.

(1991). Affect and consumer behavior. In Robertson

T. S.

Kassarjian

H. H.

(Eds.), Handbook of consumer behavior (pp. 188–240). Prentice Hall.

27.

Deery

Jago

(2005). The management of sport tourism. Sport in Society, 8(2), 378–389.

28.

Deery

Jago

Fredline

(2004). Sport tourism or event tourism: Are they one and the same? Journal of Sport Tourism, 9(3), 235–245.

29.

Eichenbaum

(1997). Declarative memory: Insights from cognitive neurobiology. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 547–572.

30.

Farmaki

(2021). Memory and forgetfulness in tourism crisis research. Tourism Management, 83, 104210.

31.

Fornell

Larcker

D. F.

(1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.

32.

Gibson

H. J.

(1998a). Active sport tourism: Who participates? Leisure Studies, 17(2), 155–170.

33.

Gibson

H. J.

(1998b). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review, 1(1), 45–76.

34.

Gibson

H. J.

Lamont

Kennelly

Buning

R. J.

(2018). Introduction to the special issue active sport tourism. Journal of Sport Tourism, 22(2), 83–91.

35.

Godovykh

Tasci

A. D. A.

(2021). The influence of post-visit emotions on destination loyalty. Tourism Review, 76, 277–288.

36.

Gwinner

Bennett

(2008). The impact of brand cohesiveness and sport identification on brand fit in a sponsorship context. Journal of Sport Management, 22(4), 410–426.

37.

Hair

J. F.

Anderson

R. E.

Babin

B. J.

Black

W. C.

(2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.

38.

Chen

(2019). A comparative study on the effect of soundscape and landscape on tourism experience. International Journal of Tourism Research, 21(1), 11–22.

39.

Hooper

Coughlan

Mullen

(2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60.

40.

Hosseini

Cortes Macias

Almeida Garcia

(2023). Memorable tourism experience research: A systematic review of the literature. Tourism Recreation Research, 48, 465–479.

41.

Zhang

Zuo

Zhuang

Liu

Zhang

(2020). How do Chinese tourists perceive tranquillity during the tour? Tourism Management Perspectives, 34, 100666.

42.

International Organization for Standardization. (2014). ISO 12913-1:2014. Acoustics. Soundscape part 1: Definition and conceptual framework. Author.

43.

Jeong

Kim

S. K.

(2020). Understanding active sport tourist behaviors in small-scale sports events: Stimulus-organism-response approach. Sustainability, 12(19), 8192.

44.

Jeong

Kim

S. K.

J. G.

(2019). Determinants of behavioral intentions in the context of sport tourism with the aim of sustaining sporting destinations. Sustainability, 11(11), 3073.

45.

Jeong

Kim

S. K.

J. G.

(2020). Sustaining sporting Destinations through improving tourists’ mental and physical health in the tourism environment: The case of Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(1), 122.

46.

Jeong

Kim

(2019a). A study of event quality, destination image, perceived value, tourist satisfaction, and destination loyalty among sport tourists. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 32(4), 940–960.

47.

Jeong

Kim

(2019b). Exploring a suitable model of destination image: The case of a small-scale recurring sporting event. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 31(5), 1287–1307.

48.

Jeong

Kim

S. K.

(2019c). The key antecedent and consequences of destination image in a mega sporting event. African Journal of Business Management, 50(1), 1–11.

49.

Jiang

(2022). The role of natural soundscape in nature-based tourism experience: An extension of the stimulus–organism–response model. Current Issues in Tourism, 25(5), 707–726.

50.

Jiang

Zhang

Yan

(2018). Natural soundscapes and tourist loyalty to nature-based tourism destinations: The mediating effect of tourist satisfaction. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35(2), 218–230.

51.

Kankhuni

Ngwira

(2022). Overland tourists’ natural soundscape perceptions: Influences on experience, satisfaction, and electronic word-of-mouth. Tourism Recreation Research, 47, 591–607.

52.

Kantono

Hamid

Shepherd

Lin

Y. H. T.

Skiredj

Carr

B. T.

(2019). Emotional and electrophysiological measures correlate to flavour perception in the presence of music. Physiology & Behavior, 199, 154–164.

53.

Kastenholz

Carneiro

M. J.

Marques

C. P.

Loureiro

S. M. C.

(2018). The dimensions of rural tourism experience: Impacts on arousal, memory, and satisfaction. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35(2), 189–201.

54.

Kim

J. H.

(2014). The antecedents of memorable tourism experiences: The development of a scale to measure the destination attributes associated with memorable experiences. Tourism Management, 44, 34–45.

55.

Kim

J. H.

(2018). The impact of memorable tourism experiences on loyalty behaviors: The mediating effects of destination image and satisfaction. Journal of Travel Research, 57(7), 856–870.

56.

Kim

J. H.

Ritchie

J. R. B.

McCormick

(2012). Development of a scale to measure memorable tourism experiences. Journal of Travel Research, 51(1), 12–25.

57.

Kim

J. H.

Ritchie

J. R. B.

Tung

V. W. S.

(2010). The effect of memorable experience on behavioral intentions in tourism: A structural equation modeling approach. Tourism Analysis, 15(6), 637–648.

58.

Krishna

Schwarz

(2014). Sensory marketing, embodiment, and grounded cognition: A review and introduction. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 24(2), 159–168.

59.

Kumar

Govindarajo

N. S.

Khen

M. H. S.

(2019). Effect of service quality on visitor satisfaction, destination image and destination loyalty – practical, theoretical and policy implications to avitourism. International Journal of Culture Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(1), 83–101.

60.

Lee

H. W.

Gipson

Barnhill

(2017). Experience of spectator flow and perceived stadium atmosphere: Moderating role of team identification. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 26(2), 87–98.

61.

Liu

Deng

Yao

(2013). Soundscape and its application in research of tourism geography: A new perspective. Geographical Research, 32(6), 1132–1142.

62.

Liu

Deng

(2016). Review of soundscape studies in tourism. Tourism Tribune, 31(3), 114–126.

63.

Liu

Wang

X. L.

Liu

Yao

Deng

(2018). Soundscape and its influence on tourist satisfaction. Service Industries Journal, 38(3-4), 164–181.

64.

McCabe

(2020). Expanding theory of tourists’ destination loyalty: The role of sensory impressions. Tourism Management, 77, 104026.

65.

Marschall

(2012). Personal memory tourism’ and a wider exploration of the tourism−memory nexus. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 10(4), 321–335.

66.

Mehrabian

Russell

J. A.

(1974). An approach to environmental psychology. MIT Press.

67.

Min

Jie

Xiao

Mengyuan

Youhai

Hui

Tz-Hsuan

Lin

Meng

(2020). How destination music affects tourists’ behaviors: Travel with music in Lijiang, China. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 25(2), 131–144.

68.

Munar

A. M.

Jacobsen

J. K. S.

(2014). Motivations for sharing tourism experiences through social media. Tourism Management, 43, 46–54.

69.

Nicolle

Goel

(2013). Differential impact of beliefs on valence and arousal. Cognition & Emotion, 27(2), 263–272.

70.

Patwardhan

Ribeiro

M. A.

Payini

Woosnam

K. M.

Mallya

Gopalakrishnan

(2020). Visitors’ place attachment and destination loyalty: Examining the roles of emotional solidarity and perceived safety. Journal of Travel Research, 59(1), 3–21.

71.

Peng

Chen

Hung

K. P.

(2017). The effects of teppanyaki restaurant stimuli on diners’ emotions and loyalty. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 60, 1–12.

72.

Perić

Ðurkin

Vitezić

(2018). Active event sport tourism experience: The role of the natural environment, safety and security in event business models. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 13(05), 758–772.

73.

Pestana

M. H.

Parreira

Moutinho

(2020). Motivations, emotions and satisfaction: The keys to a tourism destination choice. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 16, 100332.

74.

Pheasant

R. J.

Fisher

M. N.

Watts

G. R.

Whitaker

D. J.

Horoshenkov

K. V.

(2010). The importance of auditory-visual interaction in the construction of ‘tranquil space. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 501–509.

75.

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

(1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 76(4), 96–105.

76.

Piramanayagam

Sud

Seal

P. P.

(2020). Relationship between tourists’ local food experiencescape, satisfaction and behavioural intention. Anatolia, 31(2), 316–330.

77.

Plunkett

Brooks

T. J.

(2018). Examining the relationship between satisfaction, intentions, and post-trip communication behaviour of active event sport tourists. Journal of Sport Tourism, 22(4), 303–313.

78.

Podsakoff

P. M.

MacKenzie

S. B.

Lee

J. Y.

Podsakoff

N. P.

(2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.

79.

Prayag

Hosany

Muskat

Del Chiappa

(2017). Understanding the relationships between tourists’ emotional experiences, perceived overall image, satisfaction, and intention to recommend. Journal of Travel Research, 56(1), 41–54.

80.

Preacher

K. J.

Hayes

A. F.

(2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891.

81.

Price

L. L.

Arnould

E. J.

Tierney

(1995). Going to extremes: Managing service encounters and assessing provider performance. Journal of Marketing, 59(2), 83–97.

82.

Rather

R. A.

Najar

A. H.

Jaziri

(2020). Destination branding in tourism: Insights from social identification, attachment and experience theories. Anatolia, 31(2), 229–243.

83.

Reichheld

F. F.

(1996). The loyalty effect. Harvard Business School Press.

84.

Richardson

H. A.

Simmering

M. J.

Sturman

M. C.

(2009). A tale of three perspectives: Examining post hoc statistical techniques for detection and correction of common method variance. Organizational Research Methods, 12(4), 762–800.

85.

Ryu

Jang

S. S.

(2007). The effect of environmental perceptions on behavioral intentions through emotions: The case of upscale restaurants. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31(1), 56–72.

86.

Sato

Gipson

Todd

Harada

(2018). The relationship between sport tourists’ perceived value and destination loyalty: An experience-use history segmentation approach. Journal of Sport Tourism, 22(2), 173–186.

87.

Sato

Kim

Buning

R. J.

Harada

(2018). Adventure tourism motivation and destination loyalty: A comparison of decision and non-decision makers. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 8, 74–81.

88.

Schmitt

(1999). Experiential marketing. The Free Press.

89.

Seonwoo

Y. Y.

Jeong

Y. D.

(2021). Exploring factors that influence taekwondo student athletes’ intentions to pursue careers contributing to the sustainability of the Korean taekwondo industry using the theory of planned behavior. Sustainability, 13(17), 9893.

90.

Stamboulis

Skayannis

(2003). Innovation strategies and technology for experience-based tourism. Tourism Management, 24(1), 35–43.

91.

Stangor

Walinga

(2014). Introduction to psychology. Flat World Publisher.

92.

Steffens

N. K.

LaRue

C. J.

Haslam

Walter

Z. C.

Cruwys

Munt

K. A.

Haslam

S. A.

Jetten

Tarrant

(2021). Social identification-building interventions to improve health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 15(1), 85–112.

93.

Stevens

Rosenberger

P. J.

(2012). The influence of involvement, following sport and fan identification on fan loyalty: An Australian perspective. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 13(3), 57–71.

94.

Symeonidou

Kuhlmann

B. G.

(2022). Better memory for emotional sources? A systematic evaluation of source valence and arousal in source memory. Cognition & Emotion, 36(2), 300–316.

95.

Tabachnick

B. G.

Fidell

L. S.

(2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA. Duxbury Press.

96.

Towner

Milne

(2017). Sustainable surfing tourism development in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia: Local stakeholder perspectives. Tourism Planning & Development, 14(4), 503–526.

97.

Tulving

(1972). Episodic and semantic memory. Organization of Memory, 1, 381–403.

98.

Wann

D. L.

(1997). Sport psychology. Prentice-Hall.

99.

Wann

D. L.

Goeke

M. E.

(2018). Sport fan superstition: The importance of team identification, sport fandom, and fan dysfunction. Journal of Sport Behavior, 41(2), 227–244.

100.

Wei

Zhao

Zhang

Huang

(2019). Psychological factors affecting memorable tourism experiences. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 24(7), 619–632.

101.

Lai

I. K.

(2021). The use of 360-degree virtual tours to promote mountain walking tourism: Stimulus–organism–response model. Information Technology & Tourism, 24(1), 85–107.

102.

Yang

Cen

(2011). Festival tourists’ emotion, perceived value, and behavioral intentions: A test of the moderating effect of festivalscape. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 12(1), 25–44.

103.

Yim

Byon

(2018). The influence of emotions on game and service satisfaction and behavioral intention in winning and losing situations: Moderating effect of identification with the team. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 27(2), 93–106.

104.

Zhang

Buhalis

(2018). A model of perceived image, memorable tourism experiences and revisit intention. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 8, 326–336.