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Abstract

Introduction

Medicinal plants are important sources of bioactive compounds used in traditional and modern medicine. Albizia anthelmintica Brongn. and Vepris glomerata (F. Hoffm.) Engl. are commonly used in Ethiopian traditional medicine to treat bacterial infections, fever, and inflammation, but scientific evidence of their antibacterial activity is limited.

Objective

This study aims to evaluate the phytochemical composition and in vitro antibacterial activity of leaf extracts of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata using solvents of varying polarity.

Methods

Leaf powders of each plant were successively extracted with petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, and methanol. The extracts were screened for major phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, and glycosides using standard qualitative methods. Antibacterial activity was determined by the agar well diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 700603), and Pasteurella multocida (clinical isolate, EPHI) at concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 mg/mL. Ciprofloxacin was used as the positive control, and 1% DMSO served as the negative control.

Results

Phytochemical screening revealed a range of secondary metabolites in both species, with variations depending on solvent polarity. The chloroform and acetone extracts of A. anthelmintica exhibited the strongest antibacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae (29.5 ± 0.36 mm) and P. multocida (25.4 ± 0.62 mm). Likewise, the petroleum ether and chloroform extracts of V. glomerata showed notable inhibition against K. pneumoniae (29.7 ± 0.46 mm) and P. multocida (23.1 ± 0.53 mm). All extracts demonstrated concentration-dependent antibacterial effects, with statistical analysis (ANOVA, p < 0.05) confirming significant differences among them.

Conclusion

A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata leaves exhibit potent antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, likely due to multiple bioactive phytochemicals. These findings support the traditional use of these plants and suggest potential for the development of plant-based antimicrobials.

Keywords

phytochemical screening antibacterial activity solvent polarity medicinal plants

Introduction

Medicinal plants have long served as an essential source of therapeutic agents, forming the foundation of traditional medicine and continuing to play a crucial role in modern drug discovery. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), over 80% of the global population relies on plant-based medicines for primary healthcare.¹ Their therapeutic potential arises from a rich diversity of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, saponins, and phenolic compounds, which exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties.^2,3 Integrating ethnobotanical knowledge with phytochemical and pharmacological studies has proven an effective approach to discovering and validating bioactive natural products.^4,5

In this context, Albizia anthelmintica and Vepris glomerata were specifically selected for this study due to their strong ethnomedicinal relevance, local abundance, and the scientific gaps surrounding their antibacterial properties. A. anthelmintica Brongn. (Fabaceae), commonly known as the “worm-cure tree,” is a deciduous shrub or small tree widely distributed across East Africa. Traditionally, its bark, roots, and leaves are used to treat intestinal worms, fever, inflammation, wounds, and gastrointestinal disorders.^6,7 Previous phytochemical analyses have revealed tannins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenoids, and triterpenoidal saponins,^8,9 and experimental findings support its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and gastroprotective properties.¹⁰

V. glomerata (F. Hoffm.) Engl. (Rutaceae) is a small evergreen tree or shrub native to tropical East Africa, commonly recognized for its aromatic oils and alkaloid-rich composition. Species of the Vepris genus are valued in traditional medicine for treating malaria, fever, respiratory infections, and digestive disorders.¹¹ Phytochemical investigations have identified acridone and furoquinoline alkaloids, limonoids, and flavonoids with strong antimicrobial and antioxidant properties.^12–14

Despite the recognized ethnomedicinal relevance of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata, existing research has largely focused on isolated compounds or specific pharmacological effects without systematically examining how solvent polarity influences the recovery of bioactive metabolites and antibacterial potency. Moreover, standardized extraction ratios, solvent purity, and methodological consistency are often lacking in prior studies, which limits reproducibility and comparability of results across species. The present study addresses these limitations by applying a standardized, polarity-guided solvent extraction and phytochemical screening approach to evaluate the distribution of secondary metabolites and antibacterial activities of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata leaves extracts. The novelty of this research lies in establishing a direct relationship between solvent polarity, extract yield, and antibacterial performance, thereby providing a clearer understanding of how extraction parameters affect bioactive compound recovery. This approach contributes methodological clarity and experimental reproducibility, filling a critical gap in the phytochemical characterization of Ethiopian medicinal plants and offering baseline data for future isolation and formulation of natural therapeutic agents.

Materials and Methods

Chemicals and Essential Equipment

All solvents used in this study, petroleum ether (60-80 °C), chloroform, acetone, and methanol, were of analytical grade. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was used for extract dilution, and ciprofloxacin served as the positive control antibiotic. Mueller–Hinton agar and Nutrient agar were used for bacterial culture and susceptibility testing. Extraction was performed using a rotary evaporator, and bacterial inhibition zones were measured using a digital caliper.

Plant Material Collection and Preparation

Fresh leaf samples of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata were collected during the dry season (January–February 2024) from the Hamer District, South Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia (5°10′–5°40′ N, 36°10′–36°40′ E; altitude 900-1200 m a.s.l.). Plant identification and taxonomic authentication were conducted at the Jinka University Herbarium by botanist Asmera Amde Lemma. The collected specimens were compared with authenticated herbarium samples and verified using the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Voucher specimens of A. anthelmintica (Voucher No. JKU-AA-057) and V. glomerata (Voucher No. JKU-VG-058) were prepared and deposited at the Jinka University Herbarium for future reference.

All plant materials were carefully washed with tap water and then rinsed with distilled water. They were air-dried in a shaded, well-ventilated area at room temperature (25-28 °C) and subsequently ground into a fine powder using a clean mortar and pestle. The resulting powders were stored in airtight amber glass containers until extraction.

Extraction of Plant Material

Each powdered plant sample (100 g) was extracted using a successive solvent extraction procedure. The same batch of plant powder was first macerated in 500 mL petroleum ether (solvent-to-solid ratio 5:1, v/w) for 72 h at room temperature with intermittent shaking. After filtration, the remaining plant residue (marc) was air-dried and re-extracted sequentially with chloroform, acetone, and finally methanol under identical conditions. The mixtures were filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and the filtrates were concentrated under reduced pressure using a rotary evaporator at 40–45 °C. The concentrated extracts were dried under cold air to constant weight, weighed, and the percentage yield was calculated. The dried extracts were stored at 4 °C in airtight vials until analysis.

Phytochemical Screening

Preliminary phytochemical screening of the crude extracts of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata leaves was performed following standard qualitative procedures with modifications from recent protocols described by Edeoga,¹⁵ Sasidharan,¹⁶ and Ajayi.¹⁷ Each test was carried out in triplicate to ensure reproducibility.

Test for Terpenoids (Salkowski Test)

Approximately 0.5 g of the extract was mixed with 2 mL of chloroform, followed by the careful addition of 3 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid to form a distinct layer. The appearance of a reddish-brown interface indicated the presence of terpenoids.

Test for Flavonoids (Alkaline Reagent Test)

To 5 mL of each extract solution, 1 mL of 10% sodium hydroxide was added, producing an intense yellow color that disappeared upon addition of dilute hydrochloric acid, confirming the presence of flavonoids.

Test for Saponins (Froth Test)

Approximately 0.5 g of each extract was shaken vigorously with 10 mL of distilled water in a test tube. Persistent frothing that remained for 15 min indicated the presence of saponins.

Test for Tannins (Ferric Chloride Test)

Each extract (0.5 g) was boiled with 10 mL of distilled water and filtered. A few drops of 0.1% ferric chloride solution were added to the filtrate. A dark green or blue-black coloration confirmed the presence of tannins.

Test for Alkaloids (Dragendorff's Test)

Two milliliters of the extract were acidified with 1% hydrochloric acid and filtered. The filtrate was treated with Dragendorff's reagent. The formation of an orange or reddish-brown precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloids.

Test for Cardiac Glycosides (Keller–Killiani Test)

To 0.5 g of the extract, 2 mL of glacial acetic acid containing one drop of ferric chloride solution was added, followed by the addition of 1 mL concentrated sulfuric acid along the test tube wall. The formation of a brown ring at the interface confirmed the presence of cardiac glycosides.

Test for Phenols (Ferric Chloride Test)

Each extract was treated with 3–4 drops of 5% ferric chloride solution. The appearance of bluish-green or dark coloration indicated the presence of phenolic compounds.

Test for Steroids (Liebermann–Burchard Reaction)

About 2 mL of extract solution in chloroform was mixed with 2 mL of acetic anhydride, followed by the careful addition of 1 mL concentrated sulfuric acid. The development of a blue-green ring confirmed the presence of steroids.

Antibacterial Assay

The antibacterial activity of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata leaf extracts was evaluated using the agar well diffusion method, following guidelines from the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute¹⁸ and WHO.¹⁹ The extracts were tested against four bacterial strains: Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pasteurella multocida, and Staphylococcus aureus. Ciprofloxacin (5 µg/disc) served as the positive control, while 1% DMSO was used as the negative control. All experiments were performed in triplicate to ensure reproducibility.

Preparation of Crude Extract Concentrations

Stock solutions were prepared under aseptic conditions. Each dried crude extract (2.0 g) was dissolved in 10 mL of sterile dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, ≥99.5%, Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) to obtain a concentration of 200 mg/mL. The DMSO was sterile-filtered through a 0.22 μm membrane to eliminate microbial contamination. Serial dilutions were prepared using sterile DMSO to yield working concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 mg/mL, following Alabi²⁰ with slight modifications. Solutions were freshly prepared and stored in sterile amber vials at 4 °C until use.

Collection of Test Organisms

Four bacterial strains were selected: E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. multocida, and S. aureus. E. coli and S. aureus were included due to their clinical significance and widespread use as reference organisms in antibacterial studies. E. coli represents Gram-negative enteric bacteria associated with urinary tract, gastrointestinal, and wound infections, whereas S. aureus is a Gram-positive pathogen causing skin, respiratory, and bloodstream infections. Both exhibit increasing antimicrobial resistance, including extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing E. coli and methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains.

K. pneumoniae and P. multocida were included to provide a broader evaluation across clinically relevant pathogens. Reference strains used were E. coli (ATCC 25922), K. pneumoniae (ATCC 700603), P. multocida (clinical isolate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute), and S. aureus (ATCC 25923), all with well-documented susceptibility patterns. These strains are sensitive to ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone but show reduced susceptibility to first-generation β-lactams, making them suitable for comparative evaluation of plant-derived extracts.

Culturing and Standardization of Inoculum

A loopful of each bacterial colony from freshly prepared plates was inoculated into 5 mL of sterile nutrient broth and incubated at 37 °C for 18–24 h. Bacterial suspensions were adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland standard (∼1.5 × 10⁸ CFU/mL) according to CLSI¹⁸ and used as inoculum for susceptibility testing.

Determination of Antibacterial Activity

The agar well diffusion method was employed with minor modifications.²¹ Sterile Mueller–Hinton agar (MHA) plates were inoculated with 100 µL of a standardized bacterial suspension using a sterile cotton swab to ensure even distribution. Wells (6 mm diameter) were bored into the agar using a sterile cork borer.

Crude extracts (200 mg/mL stock in sterile-filtered DMSO) were diluted to working concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 mg/mL, maintaining a final DMSO concentration of 1% (v/v). Each well received 100 µL of extract solution. Negative controls contained 100 µL of sterile 1% DMSO, and ciprofloxacin (5 µg/disc) served as a positive control. Plates were left at room temperature for 30 min to allow diffusion, then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Zones of inhibition (including well diameter) were measured in millimeters using a digital caliper.

Statistical Analysis

All assays were conducted in triplicate (n = 3). Results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's post-hoc test was used to assess significant differences (p < 0.05) among extracts, concentrations, and bacterial species. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 27.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

Results

Extraction Yield

For A. anthelmintica, the crude extract masses obtained from 100 g of powdered leaves were 6.0 g for petroleum ether, 9.5 g for chloroform, 12.5 g for acetone, and 11.0 g for methanol. These correspond to percentage yields of 2.4%, 3.8%, 5.0%, and 4.4%, respectively. Similarly, for V. glomerata, petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, and methanol extractions yielded 5.5 g, 9.0 g, 11.5 g, and 10.5 g of crude extract, corresponding to percentage yields of 2.2%, 3.6%, 4.6%, and 4.2%, respectively.

Phytochemical Screening

The preliminary phytochemical screening of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata leaves showed distinct variations in metabolite distribution across the four solvent fractions (Table 1).

Table 1.

Phytochemical constituents of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata leaves extracts.

S/No.	Phytochemicals	Medicinal plants
		A. anthelmintica				V. glomerata
		PE	CE	AE	ME	PE	CE	AE	ME
1.	Saponins	_	+	+	+	_	+	_	_
2.	Terpenoids	+	+	+	+	+	+	+	+
3.	Phenols	_	+	+	+	_	+	+	+
4.	Steroids	+	_	_	+	+	_	_	_
5.	Flavonoids	_	_	+	+	_	_	+	+
6.	Tannins	_	_	+	+	_	_	+	+
7.	Alkaloids	+	_	_	+	+	+	+	_
8.	Glycosides	+	_	+	+	+	_	+	+

(Key: + = Presence; - = absence, PE: Petroleum ether extract, CE: Chloroform extract, AE: Acetone extract, ME: Methanol extract).

In A. anthelmintica, terpenoids were consistently detected in all extracts. Saponins and phenols appeared in the chloroform, acetone, and methanol fractions, whereas flavonoids and tannins were predominantly found in the acetone and methanol extracts. Alkaloids and steroids were found in the petroleum ether and methanol extracts, while glycosides occurred in both polar and nonpolar extracts (Supplementary Figure S1).

For V. glomerata, saponins were detected only in the chloroform extract, while terpenoids appeared in all solvent extracts. Flavonoids, phenols, and tannins were recorded mainly in the acetone and methanol extracts. Alkaloids were present in petroleum ether, chloroform, and acetone extracts, and steroids were detected in the petroleum ether extract (Supplementary Figure S2).

Antimicrobial Activity Results

The petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, and methanol extracts of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata were tested against S. aureus, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and P. multocida (Supplementary Figures S3-S5). Mean inhibition zones (mm ± SD) for three replicates are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

The in Vitro Antibacterial Activities of Crude Extracts and References.

Plant	Extract	Conc (mg/mL)	S. aureus (mm)	E. coli (mm)	K. pneumoniae (mm)	P. multocida (mm)
A. anthelmintica	PE	100	15.57 ± 0.42	16.37 ± 0.67	13.60 ± 0.56	15.63 ± 0.51
		50	16.30 ± 0.79	15.30 ± 0.46	24.63 ± 0.40	13.03 ± 0.75
		25	15.20 ± 0.40	13.07 ± 0.91	14.27 ± 0.93	19.93 ± 0.40
	CE	100	16.00 ± 0.44	15.57 ± 0.58	13.00 ± 0.78	15.40 ± 0.35
		50	14.50 ± 0.10	15.00 ± 0.61	29.50 ± 0.36	13.60 ± 0.30
		25	15.63 ± 0.25	19.97 ± 0.32	15.07 ± 0.23	25.40 ± 0.62
	AE	100	13.90 ± 0.60	14.50 ± 0.26	13.17 ± 0.45	14.77 ± 0.15
		50	10.27 ± 0.21	13.00 ± 0.79	29.53 ± 0.25	15.30 ± 0.46
		25	13.27 ± 0.51	17.90 ± 0.53	16.47 ± 0.38	24.93 ± 0.76
	ME	100	16.20 ± 0.10	14.93 ± 0.68	13.70 ± 0.17	14.03 ± 0.47
		50	15.53 ± 0.49	14.07 ± 0.74	16.93 ± 0.45	14.37 ± 0.84
		25	16.07 ± 0.85	19.90 ± 0.53	20.23 ± 0.35	15.13 ± 0.57
V. glomerata	PE	100	19.27 ± 0.21	20.10 ± 0.40	16.03 ± 0.67	17.80 ± 0.87
		50	14.10 ± 0.70	14.97 ± 0.29	29.70 ± 0.46	17.70 ± 0.26
		25	15.30 ± 0.10	14.10 ± 0.30	14.97 ± 0.72	17.00 ± 0.36
	CE	100	15.00 ± 0.82	14.53 ± 0.21	11.47 ± 0.55	12.00 ± 0.56
		50	14.90 ± 0.75	12.67 ± 0.15	26.43 ± 0.64	14.93 ± 0.91
		25	16.20 ± 0.79	14.00 ± 0.46	20.23 ± 0.74	23.10 ± 0.53
	AE	100	19.40 ± 0.46	15.23 ± 0.40	16.23 ± 0.42	13.80 ± 0.56
		50	13.93 ± 0.64	13.67 ± 0.38	15.20 ± 0.46	14.20 ± 0.72
		25	11.20 ± 0.52	15.47 ± 0.75	20.10 ± 0.52	21.73 ± 0.45
	ME	100	17.30 ± 0.87	14.70 ± 0.44	13.80 ± 0.36	14.67 ± 0.25
		50	15.07 ± 0.38	10.90 ± 0.82	13.00 ± 0.56	12.33 ± 0.57
		25	14.07 ± 0.32	14.70 ± 0.66	14.83 ± 0.61	23.93 ± 0.71
	Cp		27.00 ± 0.00
	DMSO		NI

(Key: PE: Petroleum ether Extract, CE: Chloroform Extract, AE: Acetone Extract, ME: Methanol Extract, Cp: Ciprofloxacin, and NI: No Inhibition, DMSO: Dimethyl Sulfoxide).

For A. anthelmintica, inhibition zones ranged from 13.0 ± 0.2 mm to 29.5 ± 0.4 mm. The chloroform extract produced the highest inhibition against K. pneumoniae (29.5 ± 0.36 mm at 50 mg/mL), and the acetone extract produced the highest inhibition against P. multocida (25.4 ± 0.62 mm at 25 mg/mL). Methanol extracts yielded inhibition zones between 13–20 mm, while petroleum ether extracts produced 13–16 mm.

For V. glomerata, inhibition zones ranged from 11.2 ± 0.5 mm to 29.7 ± 0.5 mm. The petroleum ether extract produced the highest inhibition against K. pneumoniae (29.7 ± 0.46 mm at 50 mg/mL), followed by the chloroform extract (26.4 ± 0.64 mm at 50 mg/mL). Acetone and methanol extracts produced inhibition zones of 17–23 mm against S. aureus and P. multocida. One-way ANOVA indicated significant differences among extracts and concentrations (p < 0.05).

Discussions

Extraction Yield

The extraction yields obtained using the four solvents showed a clear influence of solvent polarity. Acetone and methanol produced the highest yields for both A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata. This pattern is consistent with previous reports indicating that polar and moderately polar solvents efficiently extract a wide range of secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, tannins, phenolics, saponins, and glycosides.^5,15 The relatively lower yields observed with petroleum ether and chloroform indicate a smaller proportion of nonpolar constituents. Similar polarity-driven extraction trends have been reported for Albizia species²² and Vepris species.²³

Phytochemical Composition

The phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of diverse metabolites in both species. Terpenoids were consistently detected in all solvent extracts from A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata, which agrees with earlier findings that terpenoids are major constituents in both genera.^22,23 The presence of alkaloids in petroleum ether, chloroform, and acetone fractions of V. glomerata is aligned with previous reports identifying acridone and furoquinoline alkaloids as characteristic constituents of the genus.^11,12,14

Flavonoids, tannins, and phenols were more abundant in the acetone and methanol extracts, reflecting their higher solubility in polar solvents, in agreement with established extraction behavior of these compounds.^15–17 The ferric chloride test further distinguished phenols from tannins, with simple phenolics producing bluish-green coloration, while tannins produced a darker blue-black color, consistent with their higher molecular weight and degree of polymerization.

Antibacterial Activity Interpretation

The antibacterial activities recorded for both plant species demonstrate their capacity to inhibit Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The nonpolar and moderately polar solvents (petroleum ether and chloroform) produced the highest inhibition values, suggesting a stronger contribution from lipophilic compounds such as terpenoids and alkaloids, which are known to disrupt bacterial membranes and metabolic enzymes.^2,10,24 The activity of the acetone and methanol extracts may be attributed to polar phenolics and flavonoids, which exert antimicrobial effects through protein precipitation, enzyme inhibition, and oxidative stress induction.^15,17

The inhibition values obtained in this study (up to 29-30 mm) are comparable to or higher than those of other Ethiopian medicinal plants traditionally used for bacterial infections, including Vernonia amygdalina,²⁵ Calpurnia aurea,²⁶ Croton macrostachyus,²⁷ and Azadirachta indica.²⁵ These values also exceed some previously reported results for A. anthelmintica extracts from Namibia and Uganda, which typically ranged between 17–22 mm.²⁴ Similarly, the antibacterial activities observed for V. glomerata were slightly higher than those reported in earlier studies from Kenya and Tanzania, which attributed activity mainly to furoquinoline alkaloids and limonoids.^11–14^,15

The strong inhibition against K. pneumoniae and P. multocida in this study highlights the potential of both species as promising candidates for developing antibacterial agents that may complement or supplement existing therapies, particularly in the context of rising antimicrobial resistance.

Comparison with Previous Studies

The findings of this study agree with previous phytochemical and antimicrobial investigations on Albizia and Vepris species. Earlier work on A. anthelmintica reported the presence of triterpenoidal saponins, phenolic acids, and flavonoids,^9,12 all of which are known to possess antimicrobial activity. Likewise, previous studies on V. glomerata have reported alkaloids, limonoids, and flavonoids with demonstrated antibacterial effects.^12,13,23 The slightly higher inhibition zones observed here compared to earlier studies may reflect ecological or chemotypic variation within plant populations,⁵ as well as differences in extraction protocols, plant maturity, or seasonal factors.

Limitations of the Study

In this study, phytochemical screening was limited to qualitative assays, as the primary objective was to identify the classes of secondary metabolites present in the extracts and correlate them with the observed antibacterial activity. Quantitative analysis of secondary metabolites was not performed, and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were not determined. Future studies should incorporate quantitative measurements and MIC assessments to provide a more comprehensive evaluation of the extracts’ bioactivity.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that leaf extracts of A. anthelmintica and V. glomerata possess notable antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The chloroform and acetone extracts of A. anthelmintica and the petroleum ether and chloroform extracts of V. glomerata showed the strongest inhibition, particularly against K. pneumoniae and P. multocida. These activities correspond with the presence of key phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, terpenoids, and saponins. Overall, the findings support the traditional use of both species for infection-related ailments and indicate their potential as sources of plant-based antibacterial agents. Further work should focus on isolating active compounds and evaluating their mechanisms of action and safety profiles.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-npx-10.1177_1934578X261418407 - Supplemental material for Phytochemical Screening and Antibacterial Efficacy of Albizia anthelmintica and Vepris glomerata Leaves

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-npx-10.1177_1934578X261418407 for Phytochemical Screening and Antibacterial Efficacy of Albizia anthelmintica and Vepris glomerata Leaves by Tadasa Hailu, Asmera Amde, Obsa Asafa, Rediet Gossaye, Hamer Hansha, Habtamu Abebe, Tekle Olbamo and Kefita Kaba in Natural Product Communications

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Financial support from Jinka University is gratefully acknowledged. The authors thank the Departments of Chemistry and Biology for providing laboratory facilities and the Ethiopian Public Health Institute, South Omo Zone Branch, for access to laboratory resources. Technical assistance from Mr Mesfin Tamirat during the antibacterial experiments is also appreciated.

ORCID iDs

Tadasa Hailu

Asmera Amde

Obsa Asafa

Rediet Gossaye

Hamer Hansha

Habtamu Abebe

Tekle Olbamo

Kefita Kaba

Ethical Approval

This study did not involve human participants, human data, human tissue, or animal experiments. All experimental procedures were limited to the collection and laboratory analysis of plant materials. According to the guidelines of the College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Jinka University, and in compliance with international ethical standards, this research did not require ethical approval.

Statement of Human and Animal Rights

This study did not involve any human participants or live animal experiments. All experimental procedures were limited to the collection and laboratory analysis of plant materials, which complied with ethical standards for the use of biological specimens in research.

Statement of Informed Consent

Not applicable. This research did not involve human participants, interviews, or personal data collection requiring informed consent.

Author Contributions

Tadasa Hailu and Asmera Amde designed the study, performed experiments, analyzed data, and drafted the manuscript. Rediet Gossaye, Obsa Asafa, Tekle Olbamo, Habtamu Abebe, Hamer Hansha, and Kefita Kaba assisted with data interpretation, literature review, and manuscript revision. All authors approved the final manuscript.

Funding

The authors received financial support from Jinka University for the research. No financial support was received for the authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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