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Abstract

There is a growing demand for dyed cotton fabrics for antibacterial and UV-resistant materials application. Here, we use titanium dioxide (TiO₂) to improve the UV resistance and impart self-cleaning property to cotton fabrics. Besides, to produce antibacterial dyed fabrics, berberine hydrochloride is used as a dye and antibacterial agent. Phytic acid and berberine hydrochloride are coated onto the fabrics via self-assembly to improve the light fastness. Scanning electron microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy tests show that TiO₂ nanoparticles are grafted onto fabrics, and phytic acid (–) and berberine hydrochloride (+) are successfully assembled onto the fabric surface. The treated fabrics exhibit excellent UV light fastness and good self-cleaning property. Most importantly, the obtained cotton fabrics illustrate remarkable antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157:H7 with 97.63% and 84.52% bacterial reduction within 60 min of contact time, respectively. Therefore, our designed dyed antibacterial fabrics may have great potential for use in textiles.

Keywords

Berberine antibacterial UV-resistant self-cleaning

Introduction

Natural plant dyes come from a wide range of sources, and some of them have many advantages, such as aromatic smell, antimicrobial effects, and health benefits. However, poor light fastness of plant dyes is always a problem because it significantly limits the application of plant dyes. Cotton has been regarded as the most popular textile material for apparel-grade applications. Unfortunately, cotton fabrics do not provide adequate protection against UV radiations and bacteria.

Berberine is a quaternary ammonium alkaloid isolated from specific trees. It is the main active ingredient of Coptis. It is a yellow needle-like crystal, and its hydrochloride is extensively used in medicines and textiles.^1–14 Owing on its natural compound, excellent antibacterial efficacies, and broad-spectrum sterilization, we introduced berberine to prepare dyed antibacterial fabrics. However, almost the bonds between natural dyes and textiles are formed via weak hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces, causing poor fastness of dyed textiles, especially UV light fastness.² So, we used methods to prepare antibacterial dyed fabrics, which the bonds between natural dyes and fabrics are chemical bonds (electrostatic forces) and van der Waals forces.

Recently, microbial infections in textiles have received considerable attention worldwide. The application of antimicrobial agents to materials has received significant issues over the past decade.^15–17 The commonly used antimicrobial agents applied in textile materials include metals and their oxides, chitosan and its derivatives, and quaternary ammonium salts.^18–21 However, many antimicrobial agents, such as Ag, N-halamine, and biguanide compound, have limitations due to certain toxicity properties, short-term antibacterial effects, and bacterial resistance.^22,23 Among these agents, quaternary ammonium salts, including berberine, has gained considerable attention due to its non-toxicity, effective antimicrobial property, and compatibility.¹⁹ Therefore, natural dyes with antibacterial properties have been increasingly applied in textiles as effective coloring and antibacterial agents. However, pure berberine in the textiles might not be enough to inactivate all bacteria.

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) has been used in dye wastewater decolorization, self-cleaning applications, and the energy industry owing to its photocatalytic property.^24–27 Furthermore, it has good antibacterial effects after UV light irradiation, especially the anatase type.^18,28,29

Therefore, in this study, we synthesized TiO₂ and then modified it onto cotton fabrics by adding crosslinking agents via the dip-pad-cure process to improve the UV stability and antibacterial ability and impart self-cleaning properties to cotton fabrics. To obtain stable shades with acceptable color fastness behavior, dyeing and finishing techniques were improved using self-assembly between phytic acid (PA) (–) and berberine hydrochloride (BH) (+), which is a combination of electrostatic forces. Also, cotton fabrics were directly dyed with berberine, which acted as contrast samples. The treated cotton fabrics had deeper color and showed excellent UV light fastness compared with the contrast samples. The treated cotton fabrics also exhibited good self-cleaning properties. Most importantly, the obtained cotton fabrics illustrated remarkable antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157:H7, respectively.

Experiment

Materials and instruments

The scoured and bleached cotton fabrics (133 × 72/40 s × 40 s) were purchased from Zhejiang Guandong Textile Dyeing Garment Co., Ltd. 1,2,3,4-Butanetetracarboxylic acid (BTCA), phytic acid (PA), and tetra-n-butyl titanate (TTB) were obtained from J&K Chemical Co., Ltd. Other chemicals were from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. Coptis chinensis was purchased from Tianjin Medicinal Materials Co., Ltd. E. coli O157:H7 ATCC 43895 and S. aureus ATCC 6538 (American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, MD, USA) were used in this study.

The morphologies of fibers were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM; TM3030; Hitachi High Technologies, Tokyo, Japan). Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra were recorded via a Nexus 470 spectrometer (Nicolet Instrument Corporation, Madison, WI, USA) at room temperature, at a spectral width ranging from 400 to 4000 cm⁻¹ with 4 cm⁻¹/s and 16 of scans.

Extraction of BH

Six grams of Coptis chinensis was grinded into powder and then immersed into 60 g of ethanol in a 60°C water bath for 2 h. The solution was filtered, and the filtrate was evaporated through rotary evaporation. Afterward, the evaporated product was dissolved in aqueous acetic acid solution (pH = 5) at 65°C and filtered again. Then, the HCl solution was added slowly into the filtrate until the needle product appeared at 65°C. The solid needle product was recrystallized three times. The final product was BH and its structure is shown in Figure 1. (Yield = 8.6%) ¹H-NMR (CD₃OD): 7.21 (1H, s, H(1)), 6.08 (2H, s, H(2)), 7.46 (1H, s, H(3)), 3.19 (2H, t, J = 6.0, H(4)), 4.93 (2H, t, J = 6.0, H(5)), 9.81 (1H, s, H(6)), 4.12 (3H, 2, H(7)), 4.07 (3H, s, H(8)), 7.90 (1H, d, J = 9.0 Hz, H(9)), 8.02 (1H, d, J = 9.0 Hz H(10)), 8.69 (1H, s, H(11)).

Figure 1.

The structure of berberine.

Synthesis of TiO₂ nanoparticles (TiO₂ particles)

First, a mixture solution (100 mL) of 50 mL ethanol, 40 mL H₂O, and 10 mL NH₄OH (10%) was stirred vigorously to form a homogeneous solution. Afterward, another solution containing 10 mL of TTB and 10 mL of ethanol was injected into the mixture at a rate of 0.5 mL min⁻¹ with a constant pressure funnel. The mixture solution was stirred vigorously at 50°C for 12 h. Finally, the TiO₂ particles were separated via centrifugation.

Measuring the isoelectric point, diameter distribution, and X-ray diffraction of TiO₂ particles

One gram of TiO₂ was stably dispersed in 1 L of distilled water under ultrasonic dispersion. The pH of the solution was adjusted from 1 to 12 separately and then the zeta potential of each solution was tested with a zeta potential analyzer to confirm its isoelectric point. Moreover, the particle size of TiO₂ solution, which was at the isoelectric point, was measured. The treated TiO₂ particles (under pH 4, 5, 6, and 7) were tested via X-ray diffraction (XRD).

Preparation of coated cotton fabrics

Two percent of BTCA and 2% of TiO₂ were completely dissolved in water solution. Then, the cotton fabrics were immersed in the mixture solution for 1 min, followed by two dips and pads (wet pick-up 100%) at room temperature. The cotton fabrics were dried at 90°C for 2 min and then cured at 180°C for 45 s.

Two percent (o.w.f.) of PA (–) solution was prepared using deionized water, and then, the pH was adjusted to 4 by adding HCl. Two percent (o.w.f.) of BH (+) solution was prepared, and the pH was adjusted to 7. The cotton fabrics were immersed into PA (–) solutions for 30 s and then dried at 45°C in the oven for 1 h. Alternately, the treated cotton fabrics were immersed in BH (+) solution and dried at 45°C in the oven for 1 h (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Schematic illustration of the synthesis of coated cotton fabrics.

Breaking strength test

The breaking strength of the uncoated and coated cotton fabrics was evaluated using an electronic fabric strength tester according to the GB/T3923-1997 method. The measurement was carried out at ambient temperature. The size of testing samples was 250 mm × 50 mm. At least five samples of each fabric were tested, and the average value was recorded for analysis.

Wrinkle recovery

The wrinkle recovery property of the uncoated and coated cotton fabrics was calculated using FLY-1 crease recovery tester according to the GB/T3819-1997 method. The measurement was carried out at ambient temperature. At least five samples of each fabric were tested, and the average value was recorded for analysis.

Light fastness

The light fastness of the treated fabrics was tested according to American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) Test Method 16-2004. The treated fabrics were placed in a UV chamber (relative humidity (RH) 30%, bottom plug (BP) temperature 63°C, air temperature 43°C). After a certain time of UV light radiation, the CIE L*a*b* values of samples were calculated using a reflection spectrophotometer at aperture of XUSAV, light source of D65, and Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage (CIE) 1964 10° standard observer. The CIE L*a*b* color system and color difference (∆E) equation are shown below³⁰

Δ E = \sqrt{Δ L *^{2} + Δ a *^{2} + Δ b *^{2}}

(1)

where ∆E is the color difference, L* is the lightness arranged from 0 to 100 (0 means black and 100 means ideal white), a* is the red–green axe (positive value means red and negative value means green), and b* is the yellow–blue axe (positive value means yellow, and negative value means blue).

Self-cleaning ability

According to Tung and Daoud,³¹ for the evaluation of self-cleaning ability of treated fabrics, all the treated samples were stained using coffee solution. One gram of coffee powder was mixed thoroughly in 100 mL of distilled water and stirred at 60°C for 5 min. The samples were dried at 45°C for 1 h in an air oven. The stained samples were exposed to simulated solar radiation in a Xenotest alpha machine for 2, 4, 8, and 12 h. Afterward, the L*a*b* and ∆E values of all samples were calculated.

Biocidal efficacy test

Gram-positive S. aureus (AATCC 6538) and Gram-negative E. coli O157:H7 (AATCC 43895) were used to challenge the antibacterial functions of the coated cotton fabrics and control samples according to the modified AATCC 100-2004 method. In the test, 25 µL of bacterial suspensions was added to the center between two pieces of 1 inch² fabrics, and the sample was held in place by placing a sterile weight on top. After exposure to bacteria with contact times of 5, 10, 30, and 60 min, the samples were quenched with 5.0 mL of sterile 0.02 N sodium thiosulfate solutions to remove all oxidative chlorine residuals and vortexed to remove bacteria from membranes to solution. Tenfold serial dilutions of the quenched solutions were made with 100 mmol/L phosphate buffer, pH 7, and each dilution was plated on a Trypticase soy agar plate. The plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 h, and the bacterial colonies were recorded for biocidal efficacy analysis.

Results and discussion

Properties of TiO₂ particles

The properties of the prepared TiO₂ particles are shown in Figure 3. From Figure 3(a), we can see that the surface potential of TiO₂ changed with different pH values, and its isoelectric point was at 5.2. We can adjust the solution pH to impart TiO₂ with different potentials for further assembly. For Figure 3(b), on one hand, the crystal form of the prepared TiO₂ was shown in Figure 3(b), and the peaks corresponding to 25.4°, 37.9°, 48.1°, 53.9°, 55.1°, 62.7°, and 75.3° (2θ) 120° were the 101, 004, 200, 105, 211, 204, and 215 crystal planes, respectively.³² On the other hand, the crystal form of TiO₂ was not obviously changed under different pH values, which means that the assembly process had no obvious effect on the crystal form of TiO₂ particles. Moreover, the diameter distribution of TiO₂ ranged from 200 to 700 nm, and the average diameter was 435 nm. Thus, the result demonstrated that the prepared TiO₂ was anatase TiO₂ with an isoelectric point of 5.2 and average diameter of 435 nm.

Figure 3.

(a) Isoelectric point, (b) XRD spectra, and (c) diameter distribution of TiO₂ particles.

SEM

The surface morphologies of the uncoated and coated cotton fabrics were observed via SEM (Figure 4). Raw cotton (Figure 4(a)) displayed a smooth surface, whereas the treated cotton fabrics formed nanoparticles on the surface. The surface morphology (Figure 4(b)) of cotton fabric dyed directly with berberine showed many white substances, but its surface was not uniform. However, after coating with BTCA and TiO₂, the cotton fabric surface showed many nanoparticles and was relatively uniform in distribution. After further assembly with PA and BH, more particles appeared on the surface. This result indicated that the BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH was coated onto the cotton fabric surface and uniform distribution was present on the surface.

Figure 4.

SEM images of (a) raw cotton, (b) cotton-BH, (c) cotton-BTCA/TiO₂, and (d) cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH.

FT-IR spectra

The FT-IR spectra of the uncoated and coated cotton fabrics are shown in Figure 5. Compared with the curve of raw cotton fabrics, the curve of cotton-BH was not obviously changed. The new peaks at 1705 and 966 cm⁻¹ of the curve of cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH were attributed to the vibrational band of C=O of BTCA and stretching vibration of Ti-OH of TiO₂, respectively.³³ Compared with cotton fabrics, the bands at 3342 cm⁻¹ of the coated fabrics declined after grafting, owing to the intermolecular force and hydrogen bond between cotton and BH and the chemical bonding reaction (dehydration condensation reaction) between cotton and BTCA.

Figure 5.

FT-IR spectra of the uncoated and coated cotton fabrics.

Mechanical properties

Figure 6 shows the uncoated and coated cotton fabrics’ mechanical properties. Figure 6(a) shows that after BH treatment at pH 7 and 45°C, no obvious breaking strength was observed. The breaking strength of cotton-BH fabrics was 650 ± 18 N in warp and 320 ± 10 N in weft, respectively, which showed a slight decline (6.7% in warp and 8.6% in weft) in raw cotton fabrics. However, the breaking strength of cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH fabrics dramatically decreased. It was 456 ± 12 N in warp and 222 ± 5 N in weft, which were only 65.4% in warp and 63.4% in weft of raw cotton fabrics. These behaviors might be due to the curing process at 180°C and drying under acidic condition (pH 4).³⁴

Figure 6.

Breaking strength (a) and wrinkle recovery angle (b) of the uncoated and coated cotton fabrics.

Figure 6(b) shows that the raw cotton and cotton-BH fabrics showed poor wrinkle recovery properties, both in warp and weft directions. The wrinkle recovery angles ranged from 71° to 95°. On the contrary, the wrinkle recovery property greatly improved after treatment with BTCA and TiO₂. The wrinkle recovery angle reached up to 132° ± 3° in warp and 144° ± 5° in weft. This result might contribute to crosslinking among cotton, BTCA, and TiO₂, and this behavior is consistent with previous findings.³⁵

Color degradation under UV exposure

From Table 1, we can see that UVA light irradiation induced a decrease in color and Lab values over time. The colors of cotton-BH and cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH fabrics were quite different, demonstrating that the combination of cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH differed from that of cotton-BH. The combination of cotton-BH produced intermolecular forces and hydrogen bonding which was much lower than electrostatic adsorption in cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH.

Table 1.

Color degradation under UV exposure.

Time of UV exposure (h)	The colors and Lab*ΔΕ values
Time of UV exposure (h)	Cotton-BH	Cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH
0
2
4
8
12

BH: berberine hydrochloride; BTCA: 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid; PA: phytic acid.

Cotton fabrics dyed with natural dyes have poor fastness. This finding is consistent not only with the color but also Lab value. For cotton-BH fabrics, the colors were obviously degraded and their ΔE values up to 10 after 2 h irradiation. This finding might indicate that berberine was degraded and turned to a ring-opened component.^36,37 However, the light fastness of fabrics was dramatically improved after grafting with TiO₂ and assembly with PA. The color was not obviously changed, and the ΔE value was only 5 after 12 h irradiation. On one hand, TiO₂ may be composed of a full valence band and a vacant conduction band, which made the electrons transition from the valence band to the conduction band under UV light irradiation with wavelength less than 387.5 nm.^18,33 On the other hand, the result might be due to the color protection of PA.³⁸ Therefore, the BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH coating is a good way to improve the light fastness of fabrics.

Self-cleaning property

The self-cleaning properties of the coated cotton fabrics are shown in Table 2. Coffee-stained cotton-BH fabrics displayed not only weak UV light fastness but also self-cleaning properties. Compared with cotton-BH fabrics, the a* values of coffee-stained cotton-BH fabrics without irradiation obviously increased mainly due to the coffee. After 4 h irradiation, the color obviously changed. However, the coffee stain was also present on the fabrics. The b* values, meaning yellow and blue, decreased obviously with the extension of irradiation time, but the a* values, meaning red and green, did not change. These results could indicate that most BH degraded and the coffee stain did not degrade after UV irradiation.

Table 2.

Coffee stain degradation by photocatalytic nanoparticles under UV exposure.

Time of UV exposure (h)	The colors and Lab*ΔE values
Time of UV exposure (h)	Coffee-stained cotton-BH	Coffee-stained Cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH
0
2
4
8
12

BH: berberine hydrochloride; BTCA: 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid; PA: phytic acid.

However, the cotton-BTCA/TiO₂ fabrics showed excellent self-cleaning properties with the extension of irradiation time. The coffee stain basically degraded after 2 h irradiation, and the color had not obviously faded with further irradiation. These results were due to TiO₂ particles, which have photocatalytic properties and can degrade the substrates’ coffee stain. These results were consistent with Tung and Daoud.³¹ Therefore, the BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH coating not only improved cotton fabrics’ UV light fastness but also imparted them with self-cleaning properties.

Antibacterial efficacy

The biocidal efficacy of untreated and treated coated fabrics against S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7 is shown in Table 3. The initial populations of S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7 were 9.33 × 10⁵ CFU/sample and 2.77 × 10⁶ CFU/sample, respectively. The raw cotton fabrics exhibited poor antibacterial efficiencies with 30.37% and 25.02% bacterial reductions of S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7, respectively. However, after BH dying, the antimicrobial efficiencies of cotton-BH fabrics increased promptly, especially against S. aureus, which was inactivated by 85.64% after 60 min of contact time. However, bacterial reduction of cotton-BH fabrics against E. coli O157:H7 at 60 min was only 61.30%, which was obviously lower than that against S. aureus. These behaviors might be explained by the structure difference between S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7.³⁹

Table 3.

Biocidal activities of fibrous membranes against S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7.

Samples	Contact time (min)	S. aureus ^a	E. coli O157:H7 ^b
Samples	Contact time (min)	Bacterial reduction (%)	Bacterial reduction (%)
Cotton	60	30.37	25.02
Cotton-BH	5	82.77	29.86
	10	84.21	44.37
	30	82.05	56.46
	60	85.64	61.30
Cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH	5	92.39	73.64
	10	94.76	80.17
	30	97.92	81.13
	60	97.63	84.52

BH: berberine hydrochloride; BTCA: 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid; PA: phytic acid.

The inoculum was 9.33 × 10⁵ CFU/sample.

The inoculum was 2.77 × 10⁶ CFU/sample.

After being treated with BTCA/TiO₂ and assembled with PA/BH, the antibacterial efficiencies of fabrics further improved not only against S. aureus but also E. coli O157:H7. Only 29.86% of E. coli O157:H7 in cotton-BH were destroyed in 5 min, while 73.64% of it were destroyed in cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH. It means TiO₂ has the great and fast antibacterial property. After 60 min contact time, 97.63% and 84.52% bacterial reductions of S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7 were observed, respectively, which were due to BH and TiO₂. This is because BH, a quaternary ammonium salt, has excellent bactericidal effects against S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7; it can directly contact with bacterial cells and then destroy them by oxidizing thiol groups or halogenating amino groups in proteins.⁴⁰ The result might also be attributed to the antibacterial property of TiO₂.¹⁸

Conclusion

The prepared TiO₂ nanoparticle was anatase type, its isoelectric point was 5.2 (pH), and its average diameter was 435 nm. The SEM and FT-IR results illustrated that the cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH dyed fabrics were successfully prepared via assembly process. Mechanical property tests showed that the curing process at 180°C resulted in a decrease in the breaking strength, whereas the wrinkle recovery property greatly improved after BTCA treatment (wrinkle recovery angle reached up to 132° ± 3° in warp and 144° ± 5° in weft). On one hand, the cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH fabrics exhibited excellent light fastness and had a lower ΔE value with 5 after 12 h irradiation compared with that of cotton-BH with 15. On the other hand, the cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH fabrics exhibited good self-cleaning property under UV exposure. Importantly, the bacterial reductions of cotton-BH fabrics against S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7 at 60 min were 85.64% and 61.30%, respectively. However, the antimicrobial activities of cotton-BTCA/TiO₂-PA/BH fabrics were further improved, and bacterial reductions against S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7 reached up to 97.63% and 84.52% within 60 min of contact time, respectively.

Footnotes

Author’s Note

Jiaojiao Liu is also affiliated with College of Art and Design, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, Jiangsu, China.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The work was supported by the Project of the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (No. JUSRP51735B) and the National Social Science Fund Arts Project of China (No. 15AG004).

ORCID iD

Hui’e Liang

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Dyed fabrics modified via assembly with phytic acid/berberine for antibacterial,UV resistance,and self-cleaning applications

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Experiment

Materials and instruments

Extraction of BH

Synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2 particles)

Measuring the isoelectric point, diameter distribution, and X-ray diffraction of TiO2 particles

Preparation of coated cotton fabrics

Breaking strength test

Wrinkle recovery

Light fastness

Self-cleaning ability

Biocidal efficacy test

Results and discussion

Properties of TiO2 particles

SEM

FT-IR spectra

Mechanical properties

Color degradation under UV exposure

Self-cleaning property

Antibacterial efficacy

Conclusion

Footnotes

Author’s Note

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References

Synthesis of TiO₂ nanoparticles (TiO₂ particles)

Measuring the isoelectric point, diameter distribution, and X-ray diffraction of TiO₂ particles

Properties of TiO₂ particles