Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Cayratia trifolia L. Plant can also be employed and it can be good encouragement in protecting forests; thus, it can also be a good option to protect more trees. As of the present time the demand for the material body used in the production of pulp and paper material to produce products such as writing paper, toilet paper, napkins, newspapers, food serving disposable etc. is accordingly rising. The feasibility of Cayratia trifolia L. fiber incorporation into the pulp and paper industry is analyzed in this work. Process of bleaching was carried out on a paper sheet of 60 GSM. Then chemical composition, fiber morphology, optical, and pulp properties of Cayratia trifolia L. fiber were analyzed so as to evaluate its feasibility for this use. Other the other hand, we observed the holocellulose content of 84.4%, cellulose content of 64.92% and lignin content of 15.3%, the observed fiber length of 1.67 mm, fiber width range of 12.8 – 15.4 µm, and cell wall thickness of 3.2 µm. Tensile index, burst index and tearing index obtained were equal 42.8 Nm/g, 2.87 kPa·m²/g and 8.7 mN·m²/g respectively, brightness 82.22%, yellowness - 0.26, whiteness 87.29%. Indeed, the FTIR and SEM techniques were used to fine tune paper characterization. Paper produced from the hemp fiber is also found to be as good as paper from the paper fiber. Given this, this study found that Cayratia trifolia L. fiber made suitable for pulp making.

Keywords

Cayratia trifolia L. fibre chemical composition mechanical properties optical and pulp properties FTIR SEM

Introduction

The furniture and garment industry are one of the oldest and biggest industries in India, along with pulp paper. Pulp and paper have been the most common benchmarks for the standard of civilization and development of a lot of societies.¹ Usage, the pulp will be used in applications such as education where information is stored, advertising and communications to protect goods in transit, many forms of security of the paper library contents themselves, health & hygienic application like disinfectant usage and tissue papers and also various sanitary papers. The wood and non-wood products are currently used for the making of pulp, paper and soft boards that has poles chemical structures but not similar and in different compositions.² Hardwood represents one of the most significant operational costs for manufacturers of cellulosic fibers used in the pulp and paper industries as a premium raw material. However, the demand for hardwood has significantly increased in recent times, despite its potential to harm the environment through deforestation, leading to imbalances in ecology and climatology.³ The need of the hour in a cleaner environment eminently brought attention to variety of strategic factors and) fresh thinking within our invisible think-tanks as Wood resource depletion, consumption habit and paper-wise even non-availability of raw-materials renewed some beneficial aspects on more readily available and cheaper substitution: products from fiber plants other than wood yield vis-a-vis agricultural residues-products.⁴ Biotechnology opens a door of opportunity through which, save energy and chemical inside pulping, bleaching is not only escaped but pollution is reduced for the environment without having to bear huge capital expenditure. Even in such an era the pulp and paper industries are solely depending on renewable resources, fiber, as well as non-wood raw materials. These resources are highly valuable for pulp production and are less detrimental to forests and green lands. Additionally, cultivation waste and crops such as grass can be effectively utilized. The involvement of new technologies in production, combined with the rising cost of wood, has compelled pulp and paper manufacturers to adopt conservationist practices and aggro/farm forestry approaches. This shift has aimed to address the ecological disparities arising from the reliance on wood-based paper. Furthermore, the scarcity of hardwood and softwood in pulp and paper deficit nations has prompted mills to consider non-wood fiber resources as a viable alternative for paper production.⁵

According to the National Forest Service Web site, approximately 85% of the trees used in the production of paper and paper products are sourced from forests. Currently, the paper manufacturing industry primarily utilizes raw materials derived from various tree species, including pine, poplar, oak, and Eucalyptus globulus. In the paper production process, trees serve as the most critical raw material. It is estimated that 24 trees are required to produce 1 ton of standard office paper. Research indicates that approximately 40% of the global tree harvest is allocated exclusively to the paper industry. In contemporary paper manufacturing, hardwood-producing trees such as pine, poplar, oak, and Eucalyptus globulus are converted into pulp through processes that require significant treatment with sodium hydroxide (NaOH). These processes also involve extensive recycling steps, leading to considerable water consumption and environmental impact. Each tree, once harvested, requires a minimum of 6 to 8 years to regrow, which is a lengthy and resource-intensive process.

These factors present substantial challenges on a global scale. The primary goal of our research is to protect natural resources by identifying sustainable alternatives. In our research, novel fibers have been developed from Cayratia Trifolia L plant, which have been successfully utilized to produce high-quality paper sheets. This approach has the potential to reduce reliance on trees, thereby protecting forests and conserving natural resources. These fiber-producing plants are highly adaptable, requiring minimal water and thriving in diverse environmental conditions. Once harvested, the plants regenerate within 3 to 6 months a significantly shorter cycle compared to traditional tree species thereby offering a sustainable solution to environmental and resource management challenges.

The research was conducted to explore the potential utilization of fibers derived from Cayratia trifolia L. as an alternative source for the production of hand sheets and paper pulp. This plant is cultivated with ease, without the requirement for harmful chemicals or fertilizers. The paper produced from this plant has been shown to meet high-quality standards, exhibiting favorable properties suitable for paper manufacturing. It has been identified as a potentially viable, albeit limited-scale, alternative to non-wood materials in the pulp and paper production process. In this study, comparisons were performed to evaluate the chemical, physical, and optical properties of the paper manufactured from Cayratia trifolia L. fiber, with additional analyses carried out using FTIR and SEM techniques.

Material and methods

Sample preparation and use of chemical

Raw samples of the alleged wild Cayratia Trifolia L. plants were collected from Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana India in present study. The stem of the plant was used to extract fibers of Cayratia Trifolia L. Water retting is the process of softening of plant tissue, through immersion of the outer layer of stem into tank full of water, where the fiber will also be extracted. In addition, the antifungal content of the extracted Cayratia Trifolia L. fibers is likewise washed using distilled water to remove dirt or any other materials that probably attached to the fibers and then air dried naturally for 72 h bidirectionally at room temperature. The pulp and paper samples of Cayratia Trifolia L. as per the standard test method are shown in Table 1. For the development of pulp pads, the pulp was prepared using the standard method specified in TAPPI T 218 sp-02. This method was employed to ensure the consistency and reliability of the pulp used in the study. The prepared pulp was subsequently processed into pads under controlled conditions to maintain uniformity in the analysis of its properties.

Table 1.

According to standard test method details.

S. no.	Parameters	Standard test method
1.	Hot water solubility	(TAPPI T 207 om-99)
2.	1% NaOH solubility	(TAPPI T 212 om-02)
3.	A-B solubility	(TAPPI T204 cm-97)
4.	Hollocellulose content	(Chloride method wise)
5.	Alpha cellulose content	(TAPPI T 203 cm 99)
6.	Ash content	(TAPPI T 211 om-2)
7.	Pentosan	(CPPRI method, UV method)
8.	kappa no.	(TAPPI T 236 om-99)
9.	brightness	(ISO 2470–1:2009)
10.	tensile index	(ISO 1924-2)
11.	Tear Index	(ISO 1974:2012)
12.	burst Index	(ISO2758:2001)
13.	bulk	(ISO534:1988)
15.	thickness	(ISO534:1988)

The optical properties of the pulp pad were analyzed using the L&W Elrepho 071 instrument.

Beating

The pulp beating process was conducted using a Valley Beater, which is widely recognized for its precision in laboratory-scale pulp refining. The beating time was maintained between 30 and 35 min, with a beating load ranging from 5 to 7 kg. The process was carried out at room temperature to minimize any thermal impact on the fibers. Further, after squeezing the pulp is directly converted into paper sheet. The freeness of the pulp samples was tested in accordance with the T 227 om-17 method. It was observed that both the post beaten pulp was freer (360 ± 10 CSF) of the range.⁶

In this study, we produced paper and subjected it to a bleaching treatment.

Hand sheets from bleached pulps, with a basis weight of 60 GSM, were prepared using a KCL-type automated hand sheet former in accordance with the standard method T 205 sp-02.

A standard 60 GSM paper sheet was developed with the assistance of the Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur, India. The objective of this study was to explore the potential future utilization of this fiber in the pulp and paper industry. To achieve this, all fundamental parameters of the fiber were thoroughly examined as part of an initial study, and the findings were compared with previously available data. The results indicated that this fiber is suitable for the development of high-quality paper sheets (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Illustrative representation of the paper process.

The manual process for producing Cayratia trifolia L. fiber involves several steps

Tank retting/water retting

Water retting is employed for fiber extraction, wherein the stems are immersed in water for 5 days to dissolve the gum binding the fibers. Periodic observation is conducted after 2, 4, and 6 days to monitor the retting process.

Harvesting and pre-treatment

The stems of Cayratia trifolia L. are harvested manually and thoroughly cleaned to remove dirt. The cleaned stems are then cut into smaller portions and bundled into approximately 1 kg packages.

Separation and drying of fiber

Following retting, the stems are removed from the water, and fibers are separated manually from the outer stem. The extracted fibers are dried under sunlight. This process results in a high-quality Cayratia trifolia L. fiber, characterized by a golden-yellow color resembling lotus and silk fibers in Figure 2(b). The single fiber strength of Cayratia trifolia L fibers was found to range between 489 and 765 MPa, with an elongation percentage ranging from 1.6% to 2.4%.

Figure 2.

(a) Cayratia Trifolia L. plants (b) Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre (c) cross section view (d) Cayratia Trifolia L. paper sheet.

The cross-sectional view of Cayratia trifolia L. fiber, as depicted in Figure 2(c), is characterized by a hollow wall structure. This structural feature is anticipated to enhance the absorbency properties of the fiber, surpassing those of other bast fibers.

Paper characterizations analysis

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

This research is used for using Hitachi, Japan FlexSEM 1000 II at an acceleration voltage of 10 kV with a working distance of 5 mm. These tubes were then chopped into piece with razor blade after 48 h and the sections pasted on carbon tape and placed in SEM stage for further analysis. Since Hitachi SEM microscope which used in this research work with low vacuum approach, we will not be requiring sputter coating to make the surfaces of these non-conductive specimens conductive.⁷

FTIR spectrophotometer

Shimadzu - FTIR spectrophotometer (Model – IRAffinity-1S - Compact Fourier, Japan was used for the recording of the wedged form FTIR spectrum in the range 4000–400 cm⁻¹ from paper samples made up by using plant (Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre). The paper samples milled using a mortar and pestle to produce very fine particle sizes; 4 cm⁻¹ in the spectral resolution and scanning rate of 2 mm/s. The FTIR spectra of the paper sample were also used to qualitatively determine free functional groups (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Treated Cayratia Trifolia L. paper sheet.

Results and discussion

Cayratia trifolia L. pulp & paper from chemical characteristics

Raw material properties determine the speed at which pulp and paper are produced, as well as the characteristics of pulp and paper. Thus, due to its immediate chemical composition, quatifiable in Table 2 the Cayratia Trifolia L. is mark as a pulp and paper quality parameter. Table 1: The approximate chemical composition of Cayratia trifolia L. is presented, alongside the percentage composition of several other non-wood materials identified as viable alternatives for pulp and paper production. The lower ideals of Ash; hot water solubility; NaOH solubility; and Extractives and Lignin are preferred and the higher ideals of holocellulose; α-cellulose; and Pentosans are preferred for papermaking.^8,9

Table 2.

Chemical composition characteristics and pulp yield and kappa values of non-woods.

Raw materials	Lignin (%)	Holo cellulose (%)	Alpha cellulose (%)	(A -B) solubility (%)	Ash (%)	Hot water solubility (%)	Pentosans (%)	NaOH solubility 1 (%)	Pulp yield (%)	Kappa number	Reference
Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre	15.3	84.4	58.7	1.34	6.14	8.76	4.25	12.2	64.21	49.8	Present study
Bagasse	20.4	62.2	39.3	2.5–4.3	6.8	3.12	27–32	–	42.3	19.8	Ahmad Samariha et al. 2015³²
Bamboo	26.9	65.5	46.9	3.9	1.4	6.5	3.9	25.1	46.29	26.8	Deniz, I. et al. 2002³³
Banana fibre	13.8	67.7	44.5	–	2-3	–	10–12	–	51	21	K. M. Y. Arafat et al. 2018³⁴
Cassava stalks	20.6	50.2	36.4	–	6.6	9.8	–	29.8	18.46	36.6	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Corn stalks	19.7	59.5	35.1	9.5	7.5	14.8	9.5	47.1	33.32	10	Eroglu, H et al. 1992³⁶
Cotton stalks	23.3	66	35.7	6.1	2.5	14.3	6.1	30.4	41.74	17.5	Tutus A. et al. 2010³⁷
Eggplant stalks	28.4	63.2	35	–	4.23	10.9	21.5	40.2	48.86	17.5	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Jute fiber	14.6	74	54.8	–	0.5–2	–	18–21	–	63.97	11.8	Md. Zobaidul Hossen et al. 2020³⁸
Hemp fiber	10.4	84	61.4	3.02	2.17	–	3.02	–	65.9	54.3	Ahmet Tutus et al. 2016³⁹
Mulberry stalks	26.3	70.2	38.8	4.11	3–4.8	18.6	8.11	42.7	32.01	40	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Okra stalks	18.7	56.8	29.6	–	4.9	17.5	–	37.1	37.55	47.4	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Wheat straw	25.1	65.6	37	5.5	5–8	12.3	26 -32	40.9	41.7	13.2	Tutus, A. et al. 2023⁴⁰
Rice straw	22.9	61.7	38.7	–	12-20	-	23–28	–	36.8	18.5	E.S. Abd El Sayed et al. 2020⁴¹
Mustard stalks	18.1	62.9	37.7	–	6–8	19.7	16.5	32.5	27.59	18.5	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵

However, the lignin content of Cayratia Trifolia L. is equivalent to banana & jute fibre, higher than Hemp fiber and lower than that of all other entries in table, but remarkably less when compared with wood (26–30%).¹⁰ All non-woods holocellulose is less than that of Cayratia Trifolia L., Hemp and jute fiber are just as good cellulose as and other remaining all non-woods in Table 2. However, when alpha cellulose >34%.¹¹

All non-wood materials stated in Table 2 have less alcohol-benzene solubility than Cayratia trifolia L. Compared to bagasse and bamboo, its hot water solubility is higher than that of any non-wood material listed in the table and lower than those other materials. The ash content of Cayratia trifolia L. was equivalent to that of bagasse, cassava stalks and higher than bamboo, banana fiber, cotton stalks, eggplant stalks, hemp fiber, jute fiber; mulberry stalks and okra stalks, respectively. However, it is smaller than all those other non-wood materials in the table. Extractives are chemical constituents of raw materials that soluble in alcohol benzene.

The results indicate increase in demand in the cooking chemicals and increased pulping time as the raw materials contain more amount of the extractives which lead to the deployment of pitch, decline of strength of the pulp and the water holding capacity.¹¹ More depressing ash situations occur during the pulp refining and the chemical recovery operation, they noted. Furthermore, it also acts as trace element interfering with both the bleaching process as hydrogen peroxide and oxygen and in the pulp, alters its physical i.e. reduction toughness and strength properties are negative.^12–14

Cayratia trifolia L. paper hand sheets from physical characteristics

Paper making properties of finished goods are dependent on the pulp fiber properties derived from pulp and its processed properties. The length-width ratio of a fiber controls the fiber thickness. The values of fiber cell wall determine the solid mass of the fiber. The void fiber lumen is the core of a fiber. Therefore, the refining of pulp is a combined function of fibre wall as well as lumen thickness. Compressibility of fibers with thin cell wall. So, it was eventually admitted that papermaking properties concerned the fiber wall. Pulps produced with thin walled, broad lumen fibres show enhanced tensile index due to a greater bonded area of denser sheets while pulps originated with thick-walled fibres will generally lead to bulkier sheets showing resistance to tearing.^15,16 Table 3 presented the morphological and papermaking property of all non-woods’ pulps.

Table 3.

Morphological properties of raw materials and papermaking properties of the pulp.

Raw materials	Fiber length (mm)	Fiber width (μm)	Wall thickness (μm)	Tensile index N.m/g	Tear index mN.m²/g	Burst index (kPa.m²/g)	Reference
Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre	1.67	12.8-15.4	3.2	42.8	8.7	2.87	Present study
Bagasse	1.36	16.2	1.9	52.10	6.6	3.41	Ahmad Samariha et al. 2015³²
Bamboo	2.0	18.4	2.6	25.8	12.1	1.2	Deniz, I. et al. 2002³³
Banana fibre	3.1	20	-	72.03	4.86	4.10	A Kumar et al. 2013⁴²
Cassava stalks	0.65	25.5	2.09	38.1	4.6	1.2	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Cotton stalks	0.9	17.2	2.21	25.2	5.6	1	Tutus A. et al. 2010³⁷
Eggplant stalks	0.58	13.2	2.49	34.1	6.65	1.9	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Jute fiber	2.02	10.8	3.5	42.9	10.67	2.2	Sambhu Nath C. et al. 2017¹⁴
Hemp fiber	1.68	15.4	3.7	44.12	6.71	3.92	Ahmet Tutus et al. 2016³⁹
Jute stick	0.67	20.7	3.5	34.8	6.8	3.1	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Mulberry stalks	0.65	16.3	2.21	33.59	7.47	2.24	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Okra stalks	1.14	21	1.75	40.1	7.47	2.14	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Red Lentil stalks	0.74	14.3	2.32	36.1	2	1	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Pineapple leaves	1.06	7.35	1.9	40.3	7.2	2.4	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵
Wheat straw	0.97	9.3	1.99	36.1	5.6	2.14	Tutus, A. et al. 2023⁴⁰
Rice straw	0.78	11.6	1.83	60.5	5.7	2.8	E.S. Abd El Sayed et al. 2020⁴¹
Mustard stalks	0.87	13.7	2.53	43	5.9	1.7	Taslima Ferdous et al. 2021³⁵

The pulp made from Cayratia trifolia L. exhibited a fiber length of 1.61 mm and a fiber width ranging from 12.8 to 15.4 μm. The fiber length of Cayratia trifolia L. is good, though shorter than jute, bamboo, and banana fibers, but comparable to hemp fiber. Its fiber length is longer than all other non-wood fibers mentioned in Table 2. The fiber width of Cayratia trifolia L. is similar to that of eggplant stalks, red lentil stalks, mustard stalks, and hemp fiber, but greater than that of jute fiber, pineapple leaves, wheat straw, and rice straw. However, its fiber width is lower than all other non-wood fibers mentioned in Table 3.

Tables 3 and 4 represent the tensile index burst, tear index, fibre length, fiber width wall thickness and brightness of other paper handsheets prepared from all bleached pulps of Cayratia Trifolia L. as discussed, their values are shown below. Tensile and bursting strengths of pulps were most sensitive to fiber-to-fiber bonding. In other words, the tear index of pulp paper has a linear relationship with fiber length.^17,18 Although, investigators have reported herein some log-fibered wood species that were suitable for desirable paper strength characteristics.^19,20 Cayratia Trifolia L. the values of these parameters are summarised in Tables 2 and 3 below. Two properties of pulps that show the greatest sensitivity to fiber-to-fiber bonding are tensile and bursting strengths.¹⁷

Table 4.

The optical properties of the after chemical treatment papers sheet.

Raw materials	ISO brightness (%)	ISO yellowness (%)	ISO whiteness (%)	Reference
Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre	82.22	−0.26	87.29	Present study
Hemp fibre	58.8	18.2	97.52	Ahmet Tutus et al. 2016³⁹
Jute fibre	30.93	35.05	60.41	Sambhu Nath C. et al. 2017¹⁴
Banana fibre	75	−	−	A Kumar et al. 2013⁴²
Bagasse	78	30 to 45	−	Rangan, S. G. et al. 1995⁴³, Thomas J. Rainey et al. 2016⁴⁴

Basically, are tear index of pulp paper directly correlated to the fibre length. Some of the investigators stated that log-fibered wood species gave desirable paper strength characteristics.^19,20 In addition, certain works demonstrated that the production of paper with declare adequate strength appeared not dependent in the fiber length.^21,22 Interventions of fibre component assembly on identically can be expected to affect tensile and burst strengths of handsheets of hardwood and softwood similarly. This is the case; however, I am not sure how well non-wood pulp works. e.g., fibers from straw, banana waste fibers, corn stalks etc., so it is well understandable that the present bonding potential of existing in unrefined state was high tensile and burst index.^13,23

Cayratia trifolia L. has a higher tensile index than bamboo, cassava stalks, cotton stalk, eggplant stalk, jute sticks, mulberry stalks, okra, red lentil stalk, pineapple leaves and wheat straw. And it’s similar to jute, hemp fiber, and mustard stalks but less than that of rice straw, banana fiber and bagasse. In this mention Table 3, lower, than the tearing index of bamboo, than of Jute fiber but higher than the rest all non-woods in the mention Table 3. Cayratia trifolia L. is found to have a burst index similar to rice straw but lower than Bagasse, Banana, fiber, Hemp, Jute stick. Cayratia trifolia L, burst index is greater than rest all such non–woods mentioned in Table 3.

Cayratia trifolia L. pulp & paper from optical characteristics

It was found that the paper sheet made from Cayratia trifolia L. exhibits superior brightness compared to sheets made from hemp, jute, banana, and bagasse fibers. In terms of whiteness, the Cayratia trifolia L. paper sheet performs better than the jute fiber sheet but is slightly lower than the hemp fiber sheet. Additionally, the Cayratia trifolia L. paper sheet shows significantly lower yellowness compared to all other fiber sheets mentioned in Table 4. Overall, this paper sheet demonstrates excellent potential for future use in the pulp and paper industry.

SEM and FTIR analysis

SEM analysis

The SEM analysis was performed on Cayratia Trifolia L. diet fibres and other cellulosic components spread and spread over bleached pulps-based hand sheets, which exhibited the surface morphology better than any information available so far regarding their distribution and dispersions/arrays. Figure 4(a) and (b) demonstrate that the paper hand sheets are characterized by a multi-network of fibres bonded to each other as a result of inter fibre-fibre bond and also due to water removal during paper making process. The depolymerization of lignin and hemicelluloses led to the alterations plant fibre surface morphology. With the exception of fibre and select other pulp constituents, relatively little variation was observed in pulp yields using these pulping processes.

Figure 4.

(a) SEM images of paper hand sheets at 100x and 200x magnification (b) SSEM images of paper hand sheets at 500x magnification.

FTIR analysis

FTIR, however, is arguably the most potent equipment for functional groups, i.e., identifying the types of chemical bonds. FTIR analysis of the handmade paper from Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre samples. The FTIR spectra were recorded for the handmade paper obtained from recycled Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre samples in order to elucidate the structural changes following preparation of the papers. The FTIR spectrum of a typical sample Cayratia Trifolia L. is presented in Figure 5. Characteristic peaks of cellulose were presented as 3300 cm⁻¹, 2924–2362 cm⁻¹and 1033 cm⁻¹ assigned to the – OH, C – H and C – O–C stretching.^24–27

Figure 5.

FTIR spectrum of Cayratia Trifolia L paper.

It is the broadband between 3400 cm⁻¹ and 3000 cm⁻¹ that is related to moisture content, which can be involved in hydrogen bond formation, where O–H vibrations in phenolic groups.²⁸ Figure 5 shows the optical spectrum of Cayratia Trifolia L., which displays chemical groups due to cellulose, hollocellulose and lignin-like components. The first peak was detected at frequencies 3331.07 cm⁻¹ in cellulose composition of the Cayratia Trifolia L., which is associated to calcium-OH stretching vibrations of cellulose.²⁹ It indicated that wax appeared in the rid at 1460 cm⁻¹ and the peak around 2895.15 cm⁻¹ was attributed to CH stretching vibration of cellulose.^18,30 The peak 1028.06 cm⁻¹ was co-related to the C–O of stretching in cellulose.^16,30 While the peak 1315.45 cm⁻¹ corresponds to the CH2 wagging of cellulose and hollocellulose^31,30,29 and the top curve pointing to 661.58 cm⁻¹ depicts the C–C stretching.²⁹

Conclusions

So, it is to evaluate practicability of Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre for pulp and paper production industry this study was conducted in past days. The characteristic of chemical composition, morphology and pulp and paper properties obtained in the fibre of Cayratia Trifolia L. from the present work was accordance with another non-woods resource results described in literature about application in pulping since all indicated that Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre could be an establish raw material for pulp and paper industry. The present research demonstrated that the fibre of Cayratia Trifolia L has potential to be used as a source of raw for pulp and paper manufacture however also these reduces the extensibility of unsustainability, mainly by reducing consumer mills on their requirements on timber. The concept was raised from the study that the wood and plant samples contain alpha cellulose contents which are quite acceptable to be considered as pulping raw material. It is good that today’s fibres are wasting after harvesting of a cellulosic source and has low lignin content. The chemical structure of Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre and others aspects depicted in this study indicate that these are correct raw pulp and paper making industry material. Thus, the using crop residues assist us in protecting our forest through the following reasons and consequently, reduce emerging environmental problems. The outcome of this study, therefore, indicates that these papers can be applied in areas such as a shopping bag, book cover, packaging material, and the like. For the shop shopping and grocery purpose, packaging material for food products, for the cover page of a book, a magazine etc. Therefore, the properties of hand-made paper prepared from Cayratia Trifolia L. fibre and others shows its suitability. The newly developed Cayratia Trifolia L fiber is expected to find extensive applications in the future across various sectors, including nonwoven sheets, battery separators, solar plants, automotive industries, rope manufacturing, geotextiles, green composite materials, disposable items, and biodegradable bags. This fiber’s unique hollow wall structure, compared to existing fibers in the market, contributes to its distinctiveness. Furthermore, the fiber exhibits a fine structure and a lustrous appearance comparable to that of silk and lotus fibers. Its potential in the textile sector is anticipated to be significant, with promising prospects. Additionally, the development of this fiber is expected to generate substantial employment opportunities in the textile, pulp and paper, and green composite industries.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Ramratan Guru

References

Mathur

Thapliyal

Singh

. Challenges confronting Indian paper industry in changing scenario. J Indian Pulp Pap Tech Assoc (IPPTA) 2009; 21(3): 95–99.

Lwako

Joseph

Baptist

. A review on pulp manufacturing from non-wood plant materials. Int J Chem Eng Appl 2013; 4(3): 144–148. DOI: 10.7763/IJCEA.2013.V4.281.

Jorge

Quilho

Pereira

. Variability of fibre length in wood and bark in Eucalyptus globulus. IAWA J 2000; 21(1): 41–48. DOI: 10.1163/22941932-90000235.

Omotosho

Owolabi

. Pulp and paper evaluation of solid wastes from agricultural produce. Int J Chem 2015; 7(2): 113–121. DOI: 10.5539/ijc.v7n2p113.

Sharma

Godiyal

Bhawana , et al. Insight into papermaking characteristics of D0EPD1-bleached soda, soda-AQ and kraft pulps of citronella grass (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt). Biomass Convers Biorefin 2022; 12: 427–440. DOI: 10.1007/s13399-020-00730-0.

Wise

Maxine

D’Addieco

. Chlorite holocellulose, its fractionation and bearing on summative wood analysis and on studies on the hemicelluloses. Pap Trade J 1946; 22(2): 34–44.

Alkazemi

Chai

Allardyce

, et al. Glycerol-plasticized silk fibroin vascular grafts mimic key mechanical properties of native blood vessels. J Biomed Mater Res 2024; 113: 1–9. DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.37802.

Anupam

Lal

Bist

, et al. Raw material selection for pulping and papermaking using TOPSIS multiple criteria decision-making design. Env Prog and Sustain Energy 2014; 33: 1034–1041. DOI: 10.1002/ep.11851.

Anupam

Swaroop

Sharma

, et al. Sustainable raw material selection for pulp and paper using SAW multiple criteria decision-making design. IPPTA J 2015; 27: 67–76.

10.

Borges Gomes

Colodette

Burnet

, et al. Potential of elephant grass for pulp production. Bioresources 2013; 8: 4359–4379.

11.

Azeez

Andrew

Sithole

. A preliminary investigation of Nigerian gmelina arborea and bambusa vulgaris for pulp and paper production. Maderas Cienc Tecnol 2016; 18: 65–78. DOI: 10.4067/S0718-221X2016005000007.

12.

Ferdous

Jahan

Quaiyyum

, et al. Formic acid pulping of crops residues available in Bangladesh. Biomass Convers Biorefin 2020; 10(1): 289–297. DOI: 10.1007/s13399-019-00415-3.

13.

Jahan

Rahman

. Alternative initiatives for non-wood chemical pulping and integration with the biorefinery concept: a review. Biofuel Bioprod Biorefin 2021; 15: 100–118.

14.

Sambhu

Chandra Pan

. Low chemical pulping of biotreated jute fibre for making handmade paper. J Indian Pulp Pap Tech Assoc 2017; 29: 6–9.

15.

Kumar

Sharma

Lal

, et al. Physicochemical, morphological, and anatomical properties of plant fibers used for pulp and papermaking. In: Fiber plants. Cham: Springer, 2016, pp. 235–248.

16.

Amutha

Senthilkumar

. Physical, chemical, thermal, and surface morphological properties of the bark fiber extracted from acacia concinna plant. J Nat Fibers 2019; 18(11): 1661–1674. DOI: 10.1080/15440478.2019.1697986.

17.

Casey

. Pulp, paper chemistry and chemical technology (Volume I). Pulping and Bleaching. New York: Inter science Publisher. Inc., 1980.

18.

Silverio

Flauzino Neto

Dantas

, et al. Extraction and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from corncob for application as reinforcing agent in nanocomposites. Ind Crop Prod 2013; 44: 427–436. DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.08.049.

19.

Arlov

. Load-elongation properties of paper sheets made from Bauer-McNett fractions of beaten sulfite pulp. NorskSkogindustri 1959; 13: 342–351.

20.

Barefoot

. Wood characteristics and kraft paper properties of four selected loblolly pines. Tappi J 1964; 47: 343–356.

21.

Alexander

Marton

. Effect of beating and wet pressing on fiber and sheet properties sheet properties. TAPPI (Tech Assoc Pulp Pap Ind) 1968; 51: 283.

22.

Annergren

Rydholm

Vardheim

. Influence of raw material and pulping process on the chemical composition and physical properties of paper pulps. Sven Papperstidning 1963; 66: 196–210.

23.

Ferdous

Quaiyyum

Jahan

. Characterization and pulping of crops residue: eggplant, cassava, okra and mulberry plants. Waste Biomass Valorization 2021; 12: 3161–3168. DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c02933.

24.

Abdul Razab

MKA

Mohd Ghani

Mohd Zin

, et al. Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibrils from banana pseudostem, oil palm trunk, and kenaf bast fibers using chemicals and high-intensity ultrasonication. J Nat Fibers 2021; 19(13): 5537–5550. DOI: 10.1080/15440478.2021.1881021.

25.

d’Halluin

Rull-Barrull

Bretel

, et al. Chemically modified cellulose filter paper for heavy metal remediation in water. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 2017; 5(2): 1965–1973.

26.

Mohamad

NAN

Jai

. Response surface methodology for optimization of cellulose extraction from banana stem using NaOH-EDTA for pulp and papermaking. Heliyon 2022; 8(3): 9114–9125. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09114.

27.

Tibolla

Pelissari

Martins

, et al. Cellulose nanofibers produced from banana peel by chemical and mechanical treatments: characterization and cytotoxicity assessment. Food Hydrocoll 2018; 75: 192–201. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.08.027.

28.

Xiang

, et al. FTIR study of pyrolysis products evolving from typical agricultural residues. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 2010; 88(2): 117–123.

29.

Yang

Yan

Chen

, et al. Characteristics of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin pyrolysis. Fuel 2007; 86: 1781–1788. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2006.12.013.

30.

Siroky

Blackburn

Bechtold

, et al. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform Infrared spectroscopy analysis of crystallinity changes in lyocell following continuous treatment with sodium hydroxide. Cellulose 2010; 17: 103–115. DOI: 10.1007/s10570-009-9378-x.

31.

Célino

Goncalves

Jacquemin

, et al. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of water sorption in natural fibres using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Carbohydr Polym 2014; 101: 163–170. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.09.023.

32.

Samariha

Khakifirooz

. Application of NSSC pulping to sugarcane bagasse. Bioresources 2015; 227(3): 253–260. DOI: 10.15376/biores.6.3.3313-3323.

33.

Deniz

Ates

Determination of optimum kraft pulping conditions using bamboo (Pyllotachys bambusoides). In: 2nd. National black sea forestry congress proceedings, Artvin, Turkey, 15–18 May 2002, pp. 1072–1084.

34.

Arafat

KMY

Nayeem

Quadery

, et al. Handmade paper from waste banana fibre. Bangladesh J Sci Ind Res 2018; 53(2): 83–88. DOI: 10.3329/bjsir.v53i2.36668.

35.

Ferdous

Quaiyyum

, et al. Non-wood fibers: relationships of fiber properties with pulp properties. ACS Omega 2021; 6(33): 21613–21622. DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c02933.

36.

Eroğlu

Usta

Kırcı

. A review of oxygen pulping conditions of some non-wood plant growing in Turkey. In: Tappi pulping conference, Massachusetts, USA, 01 January 1992, pp. 215–222.

37.

Tutus

Ezici

Ates

. Chemical, morphological and anatomical properties and evaluation of cotton stalks (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in pulp industry. Sci Res Essays 2010; 5(12): 1553–1560.

38.

Zobaidul Hossen

Akhter

Tahmina

, et al. Jute Fibre: a suitable alternative to wood fibre for paper and pulp production. Am J Pure Appl Biosci 2020; 2(6): 177–182. DOI: 10.34104/ajpab.020.01770182.

39.

Tutuş

Karatas

Çiçekler

. Pulp and paper production from hemp by modified kraft method. In: 1st International mediterranean science and engineering congress (IMSEC 2016), Adana/Turkey, October 2016, pp. 1036–1042.

40.

Tutus

Eroglu

. A practical solution to silica problem in straw pulping. APPITA, Australia Journal 2003; 56(2): 111–115.

41.

Abd El Sayed

El-Sakhawy

El Sakhawy

MAM

. Non-wood fibers as raw material for pulp and paper industry. Nord Pulp Pap Res J 2020; 35: 215–230. DOI: 10.1515/npprj-2019-0064.

42.

Kumar

Singh

Jain

, et al. Banana fibre (Musa sapientum): a suitable raw material for handmade paper industry via enzymatic refining. Int J Eng Res Technol 2013; 2(10): 1338–1350.

43.

Rangan

Rangamannar

. Development in mechanical pulping of bagasse for manufacturing of newsprint. In: Proceeding of the tappi pulping conference, 1995, pp. 583–592.

44.

Thomas

Covey

. Pulp and paper production from sugarcane bagasse. In: Sugarcane-based biofuels and bioproducts. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2016, pp. 259–280.

Cayratia trifolia L. fibre: Revolutionizing paper and pulp industry with a renewable resource

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Material and methods

Sample preparation and use of chemical

Beating

Tank retting/water retting

Harvesting and pre-treatment

Separation and drying of fiber

Paper characterizations analysis

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

FTIR spectrophotometer

Results and discussion

Cayratia trifolia L. pulp & paper from chemical characteristics

Cayratia trifolia L. paper hand sheets from physical characteristics

Cayratia trifolia L. pulp & paper from optical characteristics

SEM and FTIR analysis

SEM analysis

FTIR analysis

Conclusions

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References