Decentering is thought to be protective against a range of psychological symptoms, but little is known about the outcomes of decentering as a momentary state in daily life. We used ecological momentary assessment (42 reports across 1 week) to examine the temporal ordering of the associations of decentering with affect, dysphoria, participant-specific idiographic symptoms, and well-being. We also hypothesized that greater decentering predicts less inertia (persistence) of each variable and weakens the association of affect with dysphoria, idiographic symptoms, and well-being. Results in 345 community participants indicated that decentering and these variables were mutually reinforcing over time and that greater decentering was associated with less inertia of negative affect and dysphoria. Decentering generally predicted reduced impact of positive and negative affect on dysphoria symptoms, but results were mixed when predicting idiographic symptoms or well-being. Clinical implications and refinements for theory on decentering are discussed.
AsparouhovT.MuthénB. (2019). Latent variable centering of predictors and mediators in multilevel and time-series models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 26(1), 119–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2018.1511375
3.
AsparouhovT.MuthénB. (2021). Bayesian estimation of single and multilevel models with latent variable interactions. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 28(2), 314–328.
4.
BauerD. J.CurranP. J. (2005). Probing interactions in fixed and multilevel regression: Inferential and graphical techniques. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 373–400. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr4003_5
5.
BernsteinA.HadashY.LichtashY.TanayG.ShepherdK.FrescoD. M. (2015). Decentering and related constructs: A critical review and metacognitive processes model. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 599–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615594577
6.
BiehlerK. M.Naragon-GaineyK. (2022). Clarifying the relationship between self-compassion and mindfulness: An ecological momentary assessment study. Mindfulness, 13(4), 843–854. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01865-z
7.
BlankeE. S.RiedigerM.BroseA. (2018). Pathways to happiness are multidirectional: Associations between state mindfulness and everyday affective experience. Emotion, 18(2), 202–211. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000323
8.
BreinesJ. G.CrockerJ.GarciaJ. A. (2008). Self-objectification and well-being in women’s daily lives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(5), 583–598. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207313727
9.
Briones-BuixassaL.AlíÍ.SchmidtC.NicolaouS.PascualJ. C.SolerJ.VegaD. (2021). Predicting non-suicidal self-injury in young adults with and without borderline personality disorder: A multilevel approach combining ecological momentary assessment and self-report measures. Psychiatric Quarterly, 92, 1035–1054. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-020-09875-7
10.
BrockmanR.CiarrochiJ.ParkerP.KashdanT. (2017). Emotion regulation strategies in daily life: Mindfulness, cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 46(2), 91–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2016.1218926
11.
DeMarreeK. G.Naragon-GaineyK. (2022). Individual differences in the contents and form of present-moment awareness: The Multidimensional Awareness Scale. Assessment, 29(3), 583–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120986605
12.
DengX.AnS.ChengC. (2019). Cultural differences in the implicit and explicit attitudes toward emotion regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 149, 220–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.057
13.
De VausJ.HornseyM. J.KuppensP.BastianB. (2017). Exploring the East-West divide in prevalence of affective disorder: A case for cultural differences in coping with negative emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 22(3), 285–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868317736222
14.
DonaldJ. N.AtkinsP. W. B.ParkerP. D.ChristieA. M.GuoJ. (2017). Cognitive defusion predicts more approach and less avoidance coping with stress, independent of threat and self-efficacy appraisals. Journal of Personality, 85(5), 716–729. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12279
15.
DuJ.YuanyuanA.DingX.ZhangQ.XuW. (2019). State mindfulness and positive emotions in daily life: An upward spiral process. Personality and Individual Differences, 141, 57–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.037
16.
FormanE. M.HerbertJ. D.JuarascioA. S.YeomansP. D.ZebellJ. A.GoetterE. M.MoitraE. (2012). The Drexel defusion scale: A new measure of experiential distancing. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 1(1–2), 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2012.09.001
17.
FrescoD. M.MooreM. T.van DulmenM. H. M.SegalZ. V.MaS. H.TeasdaleJ. D.WilliamsJ. M. G. (2007). Initial psychometric properties of the Experiences Questionnaire: Validation of a self-report measure of decentering. Behavior Therapy, 38(3), 234–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.08.003
18.
FrescoD. M.SegalZ. V.BuisT.KennedyS. (2007). Relationship of posttreatment decentering and cognitive reactivity to relapse in major depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(3), 447–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.3.447
19.
GarlandE. L.FarbN. A.GoldinP. R.FredricksonB. L. (2015). Mindfulness broadens awareness and builds eudaimonic meaning: A process model of mindful positive emotion regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 26(4), 293–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.1064294
20.
GeldhofG. J.PreacherK. J.ZyphurM. J. (2013). Reliability estimation in a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis framework. Psychological Methods, 19(1), 72–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032138
21.
GillandersD. T.BolderstonH.BondF. W.DempsterM.FlaxmanP. E.CampbellL.KerrS.TanseyL.NoelP.FerenbachC.MasleyS.RoachL.LloydJ.MayL.ClarkeS.RemingtonB. (2014). The development and initial validation of the cognitive fusion questionnaire. Behavior Therapy, 45(1), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2013.09.001
22.
GoldbergS. B.HanleyA. W.BaldwinS. A.BernsteinA.GarlandE. L. (2020). Does mindfulness practice promote psychological functioning or is it the other way around? A daily diary study. Psychotherapy, 57(3), 310–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000286
23.
GorinA. A.StoneA. A. (2001). Recall biases and cognitive errors in retrospective self-reports: A call for momentary assessments. In BaumA.RevensonT. A.SingerJ. E. (Eds.), Handbook of health psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 405–413). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
24.
GotinkR. A.HermansK. S.GeschwindN.De NooijR.De GrootW. T.SpeckensA. E. (2016). Mindfulness and mood stimulate each other in an upward spiral: A mindful walking intervention using experience sampling. Mindfulness, 7(5), 1114–1122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0550-8
HadashY.LichtashY.BernsteinA. (2017). Measuring decentering and related constructs: Capacity and limitations of extant assessment scales. Mindfulness, 8(6), 1674–1688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0743-9
27.
HayesS. C.StrosahlK. D.WilsonK. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change. The Guilford Press.
28.
Hayes-SkeltonS. A.CallowayA.RoemerL.OrsilloS. M. (2015). Decentering as a potential common mechanism across two therapies for generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(2), 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038305
29.
HofmannW.PatelP. V. (2015). SurveySignal: A convenient solution for experience sampling research using participants’ own smartphones. Social Science Computer Review, 33(2), 235–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439314525117
30.
HuL. T.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
31.
KengS.-L.SmoskiM. J.RobinsC. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: A review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1041–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006
32.
KengS.-L.TongE. M. W. (2016). Riding the tide of emotions with mindfulness: Mindfulness, affect dynamics, and the mediating role of coping. Emotion, 16(5), 706–718. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000165
33.
KovalP.BroseA.PeM. L.HoubenM.ErbasY.ChampagneD.KuppensP. (2015). Emotional inertia and external events: The roles of exposure, reactivity, and recovery. Emotion, 15(5), 625–636. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000059
34.
KrafftJ.KlimczakK. S.LevinM. E. (2021). Effects of cognitive restructuring and defusion for coping with difficult thoughts in a predominantly white female college student sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 46, 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-021-10242-4
35.
KuppensP.AllenN. B.SheeberL. B. (2010). Emotional inertia and psychological maladjustment. Psychological Science, 21(7), 984–991. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610372634
36.
LambertN. M.StillmanT. F.HicksJ. A.KambleS.BaumeisterR. F.FinchamF. D. (2013). To belong is to matter: Sense of belonging enhances meaning in life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(11), 1418–1427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213499186
37.
LeboisL. A.PapiesE. K.GopinathK.CabanbanR.QuigleyK. S.KrishnamurthyV.BarrettL. F.BarsalouL. W. (2015). A shift in perspective: Decentering through mindful attention to imagined stressful events. Neuropsychologia, 75, 505–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.05.030
38.
McCrackenL. M.DaSilvaP.SkillicornB.DohertyR. (2014). The Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire: A preliminary study of psychometric properties and prediction of functioning in chronic pain. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 30(10), 894–901. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000047
39.
McNeishD.HamakerE. L. (2020). A primer on two-level dynamic structural equation models for intensive longitudinal data in Mplus. Psychological Methods, 25(5), 610–635. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000250
Naragon-GaineyK.DeMarreeK. G. (2017a). Decentering attenuates the associations of negative affect and positive affect with psychopathology. Clinical Psychological Science, 5(6), 1027–1047. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167 702617719758
42.
Naragon-GaineyK.DeMarreeK. G. (2017b). Structure and validity of measures of decentering and defusion. Psychological Assessment, 29(7), 935–954. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000405
43.
O’TooleM. S.RennaM. E.MenninD. S.FrescoD. M. (2019). Changes in decentering and reappraisal temporally precede symptom reduction during emotion regulation therapy for generalized anxiety disorder with and without co-occurring depression. Behavior Therapy, 50(6), 1042–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2018.12.005
44.
ParkJ.Naragon-GaineyK. (2020). Is more emotional clarity always better? An examination of curvilinear and moderated associations between emotional clarity and internalising symptoms. Cognition & Emotion, 34(2), 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1621803
45.
PearsonM. R.BrownD. B.BravoA. J.WitkiewitzK. (2015). Staying in the moment and finding purpose: The associations of trait mindfulness, decentering, and purpose in life with depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and alcohol-related problems. Mindfulness, 6, 645–653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0300-8
46.
PiccirilloM. L.RodebaughT. L. (2019). Foundations of idiographic methods in psychology and applications for psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 71, 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.01.002
47.
RobinsonM. D.CloreG. L. (2002). Belief and feeling: Evidence for an accessibility model of emotional self-report. Psychological Bulletin, 128(6), 934–960. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.934
48.
RowlandZ.WenzelM.KubiakT. (2020). A mind full of happiness: How mindfulness shapes affect dynamics in daily life. Emotion, 20(3), 436–451. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000562
49.
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
50.
SchultzbergM.MuthénB. (2018). Number of subjects and time points needed for multilevel time-series analysis: A simulation study of dynamic structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 25(4), 495–515. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2017.1392862
51.
SegalZ. V.WilliamsJ. M. G.TeasdaleJ. D. (2013). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
52.
SgherzaT. R.DeMarreeK. G.Naragon-GaineyK. (2022). Testing the Mindfulness-to-Meaning Theory in daily life. Mindfulness, 13, 2324–2336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01961-0
53.
ShohamA.GoldsteinP.OrenR.SpivakD.BernsteinA. (2017). Decentering in the process of cultivating mindfulness: An experience-sampling study in time and context. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000154
54.
SimmsL. J.GoldbergL. R.RobertsJ. E.WatsonD.WelteJ.RottermanJ. H. (2011). Computerized adaptive assessment of personality disorder: Introducing the CAT-PD project. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93(4), 380–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.577475
55.
SmithJ. L.BryantF. B. (2017). Savoring and well-being: Mapping the cognitive-emotional terrain of the happy mind. In RobinsonM. D.EidM. (Eds.), The happy mind: Cognitive contributions to well-being (pp. 139–156). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58763-9_8
56.
SnippeE.NyklíčekI.SchroeversM. J.BosE. H. (2015). The temporal order of change in daily mindfulness and affect during mindfulness-based stress reduction. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000057
TamirM.SchwartzS. H.CieciuchJ.RiedigerM.TorresC.ScollonC.DzokotoV.ZhouX.VishkinA. (2016). Desired emotions across cultures: A value-based account. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(1), 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000072
59.
TeasdaleJ. D.MooreR. G.HayhurstH.PopeM.WilliamsS.SegalZ. V. (2002). Metacognitive awareness and prevention of relapse in depression: Empirical evidence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(2), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.70.2.275
60.
TsaiJ. L.ClobertM. (2019). Cultural influences on emotion: Established patterns and emerging trends. In CohenD.KitayamaS. (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology (2nd ed., pp. 292–318). The Guilford Press.
61.
TschacherW.LienhardN. (2021). Mindfulness is linked with affectivity in daily life: An experience-sampling study with meditators. Mindfulness, 12(6), 1459–1472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01615-7
62.
VerduynP.Van MechelenI.KrossE.ChezziC.Van BeverF. (2012). The relationship between self-distancing and the duration of negative and positive emotional experiences in daily life. Emotion, 12(6), 1248–1263. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028289
63.
WhitmerA. J.GotlibI. H. (2013). An attentional scope model of rumination. Psychological Bulletin, 139(5), 1036–1061. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030923
64.
YasinskiC.HayesA. M.ReadyC. B.CummingsJ. A.BermanI. S.McCauleyT.WebbC.DeblingerE. (2016). In-session caregiver behavior predicts symptom change in youth receiving trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(12), 1066–1077. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000147
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
