Young adulthood is a critical time for the emergence of risk behaviors including smoking. Psychological health is associated with smoking, but studies rarely track both over time. We used longitudinal data to assess whether average patterns of psychological health influenced average patterns of smoking and whether short-term fluctuations in psychological health influenced fluctuations in smoking.
Method:
Young adults aged 18–30 from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics were followed from 2007 to 2013, and mean trajectories of smoking were modeled. Psychological health variables included ever having a mental health diagnosis and time-varying distress.
Results:
In regression models, individuals with poorer psychological health (higher distress or a diagnosis) were more likely to be smokers and to smoke greater number of cigarettes. The association of diagnosis with number of cigarettes smoked increased with age.
Conclusions:
Smoking-related interventions should target individuals with poorer psychological health, even if they have no formal mental health diagnosis.
AikenL. S.WestS. G.RenoR. R. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2.
AndaR. F.CroftJ. B.FelittiV. J.NordenbergD.GilesW. H.WilliamsonD. F.GiovinoG. A. (1999). Adverse childhood experiences and smoking during adolescence and adulthood. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 1652–1658.
3.
BaresC. B.PascaleA. (2014). Trajectories of daily cigarette use from mid-adolescence to young adulthood: The role of depressive symptoms. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 140, e10–e11.
4.
BonnieR. J.StrattonK.KwanL. Y. (2015). Public Health Implications of Raising the Minimum Age of Legal Access to Tobacco Products. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US).
5.
BreslauN. (1995). Psychiatric comorbidity of smoking and nicotine dependence. Behavior Genetics, 25, 95–101.
6.
BreslauN.NovakS. P.KesslerR. C. (2004). Psychiatric disorders and stages of smoking. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 69–76.
7.
BreslauN.PetersonE. L.SchultzL. R.ChilcoatH. D.AndreskiP. (1998). Major depression and stages of smoking: a longitudinal investigation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 161–166.
8.
BrownR. A.LewinsohnP. M.SeeleyJ. R.WagnerE. F. (1996). Cigarette smoking, major depression, and other psychiatric disorders among adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1602–1610.
9.
ChaitonM. O.CohenJ. E.O’LoughlinJ.RehmJ. (2009). A systematic review of longitudinal studies on the association between depression and smoking in adolescents. BMC Public Health, 9, 356.
10.
ChassinL.PressonC. C.RoseJ. S.ShermanS. J. (1996). The natural history of cigarette smoking from adolescence to adulthood: demographic predictors of continuity and change. Health Psychology, 15, 478.
11.
CurryS. J.MermelsteinR. J.SporerA. K. (2009). Therapy for specific problems: Youth tobacco cessation. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 229–255.
FagerströmK.AubinH. J. (2009). Management of smoking cessation in patients with psychiatric disorders. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 25, 511–518.
14.
FluhartyM.TaylorA. E.GrabskiM.MunafòM. R. (2017). The association of cigarette smoking with depression and anxiety: A systematic review. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 19, 3–13.
15.
FuemmelerB.LeeC. T.RanbyK. W.ClarkT.McClernonF. J.YangC.KollinsS. H. (2013). Individual- and community-level correlates of cigarette-smoking trajectories from age 13 to 32 in a US population-based sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 132, 301–308.
16.
GlanzK.RimerB. K.ViswanathK. (2008). Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
17.
GlanzK.SchwartzM. D. (2008). Stress, coping, and health behavior. In GlanzK.RimerB.ViswanathK. (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice (4th ed., pp. 211–236). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
18.
GoodwinR. D.PerkoniggA.HöflerM.WittchenH. U. (2013). Mental disorders and smoking trajectories: A 10-year prospective study among adolescents and young adults in the community. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 130, 201–207.
19.
HitsmanB.MossT. G.MontoyaI. D.GeorgeT. P. (2009). Treatment of tobacco dependence in mental health and addictive disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 54, 368.
20.
HussongA. M.HicksR. E.LevyS. A.CurranP. J. (2001). Specifying the relations between affect and heavy alcohol use among young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 449.
21.
JamalA.AgakuI. T.O’ConnorE.KingB. A.KenemerJ. B.NeffL. (2014). Current cigarette smoking among adults—United States, 2005–2013. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63, 1108–1112.
22.
KahlerC. W.BrownR. A.StrongD. R.Lloyd-RichardsonE. E.NiauraR. (2003). History of major depressive disorder among smokers in cessation treatment: Associations with dysfunctional attitudes and coping. Addictive Behaviors, 28, 1033–1047.
23.
KesslerR. C.BerglundP.DemlerO.JinR.MerikangasK. R.WaltersE. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602.
24.
KinnunenT.DohertyK.MilitelloF. S.GarveyA. J. (1996). Depression and smoking cessation: characteristics of depressed smokers and effects of nicotine replacement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 791.
25.
LasserK.BoydJ. W.WoolhandlerS.HimmelsteinD. U.McCormickD.BorD. H. (2000). Smoking and mental illness: A population-based prevalence study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 2606–2610.
26.
LittleH. J. (2000). Behavioral mechanisms underlying the link between smoking and drinking. Alcohol Research & Health, 24, 215–215.
27.
McCarronP.SmithG. D.OkashaM.McEwenJ. (2001). Smoking in adolescence and young adulthood and mortality in later life: Prospective observational study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 334–335.
28.
MeyerB. (2001). Coping with severe mental illness: Relations of the Brief COPE with symptoms, functioning, and well-being. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 265–277.
29.
OrlandoM.TuckerJ. S.EllicksonP. L.KleinD. J. (2004). Developmental trajectories of cigarette smoking and their correlates from early adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 400.
30.
Panel Study of Income Dynamics. (2016). PSID: A national study of socioeconomics and health over lifetimes and across generations. Retrived fromhttps://simba.isr.umich.edu/data/data.aspx
31.
PicciottoM. R.BrunzellD. H.CaldaroneB. J. (2002). Effect of nicotine and nicotinic receptors on anxiety and depression. Neuroreport, 13, 1097–1106.
32.
PreacherK. J.CurranP. J.BauerD. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448.
33.
PrimackB. A.LandS. R.FanJ.KimK. H.RosenD. (2013). Associations of mental health problems with waterpipe tobacco and cigarette smoking among college students. Substance Use and Misuse, 48, 211–219.
34.
ProchaskaJ. J. (2010). Failure to treat tobacco use in mental health and addiction treatment settings: A form of harm reduction?Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 110, 177–182.
35.
ProchaskaJ. J.DasS.Young-WolffK. C. (2017). Smoking, mental illness, and public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 38, 165–185.
36.
RaboisD.HaagaD. A. (1997). Cognitive coping, history of depression, and cigarette smoking. Addictive Behaviors, 22, 789–796.
37.
SchleicherH. E.HarrisK. J.CatleyD.NazirN. (2009). The role of depression and negative affect regulation expectancies in tobacco smoking among college students. Journal of American College Health, 57, 507–512.
38.
SmithP. H.HomishG. G.SaddlesonM. L.KozlowskiL. T.GiovinoG. A. (2013). Nicotine withdrawal and dependence among smokers with a history of childhood abuse. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 15, 2016–2021.
39.
SteinbergM. L.WilliamsJ. M.LiY. (2015). Poor mental health and reduced decline in smoking prevalence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 49, 362–369.
40.
StewartS. H.KarpJ.PihlR. O.PetersonR. A. (1997). Anxiety sensitivity and self-reported reasons for drug use. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9, 223–240.
41.
SussmanS.BrannonB. R.DentC. W.HansenW. B.JohnsonC. A.FlayB. R. (1993). Relations of coping effort, coping strategies, perceived stress, and cigarette smoking among adolescents. Substance Use and Misuse, 28, 599–612.
42.
TakayanagiY.SpiraA. P.RothK. B.GalloJ. J.EatonW. W.MojtabaiR. (2014). Accuracy of reports of lifetime mental and physical disorders: Results from the Baltimore Epidemiological Catchment Area study. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 273–280.
43.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Preventing tobacco use among youth and young adults: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Author.
44.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2014). Surgeon General’s Report: The health consequences of smoking—50 Years of progres. Rockville, MD: Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General.
45.
VollrathM. (1998). Smoking, coping and health behavior among university students. Psychology and Health, 13, 431–441.
46.
WeiserM.ReichenbergA.GrottoI.YasvitzkyR.RabinowitzJ.LubinG.…DavidsonM. (2004). Higher rates of cigarette smoking in male adolescents before the onset of schizophrenia: A historical-prospective cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1219–1223.
47.
XieB.PalmerP.LiY.LinC.JohnsonC. A. (2013). Developmental trajectories of cigarette use and associations with multilayered risk factors among Chinese adolescents. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 15, 1673–1681.
