Abstract
This study investigates the impact of self-regulation skills on the decision-making styles of school administrators in public primary schools using an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach. Quantitative data were collected using the “Self-Regulation Skills Scale for School Administrators” and the “Decision-Making Styles Scale,” while qualitative data were derived from semi-structured interviews with administrators and teachers. The findings reveal that administrators with strong self-regulation skills predominantly adopt rational and intuitive decision-making styles, fostering effective management and improved educational outcomes. Notably, foresight, will control, and self-reflection emerged as key dimensions influencing these styles. The study highlights the importance of professional development programs focused on enhancing self-regulation skills, which can optimise decision-making processes and positively impact student performance and overall school success. These results underscore the necessity of integrating self-regulation training into educational leadership development for sustainable organisational growth.
Plain Language Summary
This study looks at how school principals’ ability to control their thoughts, emotions, and actions (called self-regulation) affects how they make decisions. It focuses on principals in public primary schools and explores how skills like planning ahead, controlling impulses, and reflecting on actions influence their choices. Using surveys and interviews, the study found that principals with strong self-regulation tend to make decisions using logical thinking and gut instincts, leading to better management and improved results for students. The study highlights the need for training programs to help principals strengthen these skills for the benefit of the whole school.
Keywords
Introduction
The ability of school administrators to self-regulate and make informed decisions is crucial for achieving educational success in public primary schools. Despite the extensive research on self-regulation in educational contexts, studies primarily focus on its effects on teachers and students, with limited attention given to school administrators. Research highlights the critical role of teachers’ beliefs and confidence in developing self-regulation skills (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012; M. Webb et al., 2018). However, there is a noticeable gap in the literature addressing how self-regulation influences the decision-making processes of school leaders. In general, motivation theories suggest that individuals set goals and adapt their behaviours to meet their needs, aligning with the actions of school administrators who aim to achieve organisational objectives. This study seeks to evaluate the relationship between self-regulation components—foresight, will control, and self-reflection—and decision-making styles in school leadership. Enhancing self-regulation skills through professional development programs has been recognised as a strategy to equip school administrators with the tools necessary for informed and effective decision-making (Carter et al., 2015; Unver et al., 2022). Effective self-regulation extends beyond managing personal goals, fostering better learning environments, and better student outcomes. By emphasising the importance of self-regulation and decision-making competencies, this study advocates for focused professional development programs that not only enhance the personal effectiveness of school administrators but also contribute to the success of the entire school community.
Self-Regulation in Educational Leadership
Self-regulation is an essential component of academic performance, directly influencing school administrators’ decision-making and productivity in their leadership roles. This skill involves managing thoughts and emotions to set goals, develop plans, and achieve desired outcomes. Grounded in social cognitive theory, self-regulation emerges from the interaction between personal and environmental factors (Bandura, 1986). De la Fuente et al. (2022a) and Masaki (2023) highlight its sociocultural dimensions, while Blair and Ku (2022) describe it as a multifaceted construct encompassing cognitive, affective, and behavioural aspects. Beyond individual performance, self-regulation enhances organisational effectiveness. It fosters stronger relationships among school stakeholders, improving student attendance and achievement (Eisenberg et al., 2010). Administrators with advanced self-regulatory skills excel in decision-making, creating environments that support academic success (Zimmerman, 2000). Furthermore, research highlights the transformative potential of self-regulation in education, emphasising its ability to enhance instructional quality and leadership effectiveness (Schunk, 2005; M. Webb et al., 2018). Building on this foundation, Bandura (2001a) emphasises its role in goal setting, resource allocation, and strategic adaptation. Self-regulation follows a cycle of foresight, will control, and reflection (Dowdy et al., 2023). Will control, essential during task execution, encompasses attentional management and self-monitoring to sustain focus and adapt to changing circumstances (Andrews et al., 2023). Reflection, occurring post-decision, enables individuals to evaluate outcomes and refine their strategies for future actions (Fomani et al., 2022). Together, these dimensions form a cohesive framework for effective self-regulation, underscoring the importance of developing eachcomponent rather than focusing on isolated elements. By mastering self-regulation, educational leaders can create environments that support academic success, enhance decision-making processes, and drive organisational growth. This integrated approach is particularly critical in modern educational settings, where dynamic challenges require adaptive and strategic leadership.
Regional and Cultural Differences in Self-Regulation Practices
Cultural and systemic differences shape self-regulation in educational leadership worldwide. In collectivist cultures such as Asia, shared goals and group harmony shape selfregulation strategies, often integrating collective decision-making processes as seen in Japan and South Korea, where harmony and collaboration are emphasised (Masaki, 2023; Ryan & Deci, 2020). In contrast, Western countries like the United States embed self-regulation within professional development programs for school principals, focusing on data-driven decisionmaking and goal-setting (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007). Educational system structure also matters; centralised systems like China limit autonomy, while decentralised systems like the U.S. provide greater flexibility (Sandars & Cleary, 2011). Meanwhile, Australian schools emphasise autonomy and innovation, encouraging leaders to align self-regulation with innovative teaching practices and community engagement (Blair & Ku, 2022; De la Fuente et al., 2022b). These variations highlight the necessity of tailoring self-regulation strategies to fit local educational contexts and cultural values. This perspective aligns with Bandura’s (2001b) assertion that self-regulation is influenced by the dynamic interaction of personal and environmental factors. Cultural differences and the structure of education systems significantly shape selfregulation practices in school administration across regions such as Asia, Australia, and the United States. Collectivist cultures in Asia, emphasising group goals and discipline, often foster self-regulation through structured, centralised systems, as seen in Singapore, where executive functioning is closely tied to academic outcomes (Chen & Yeung, 2023). Western cultures prioritise autonomy, with decentralised systems fostering varied local practices (G. Jackson, 2016). Parental expectations drive self-regulation in Asian contexts, while intrinsic motivation is key in Western settings (Chong, 2007). Centralised models ensure uniformity but may limit creativity, whereas decentralised models encourage innovation yet risk inconsistency (Purdie & Hattie, 1996). Recognising these differences is essential for developing context-sensitive education policies and leadership strategies.
The Role of Self-Regulation in Educational Leadership
Self-regulation in educational leadership varies by school level, leadership style, and school culture. In elementary schools, administrators emphasise foundational regulation skills like goal-setting and persistence (Zimmerman, 1990). At the secondary level, administrators emphasise advanced self-regulation practices like planning and time management to prepare students for career and college readiness (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Leadership style is also key; transformational leaders foster intrinsic motivation and autonomy, creating environments that support self-regulation (Clemons & Hopkins, 2020). School culture further influences selfregulation, with collaborative settings enhancing its effectiveness, while competitive environments may hinder it (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005). This interplay of educational level, leadership style, and culture highlights the nuanced application of self-regulation practices in schools. Self-regulation also plays a crucial role in addressing diverse student needs, including those with learning disabilities, by informing tailored interventions. Its integration into school administration enhances decision-making and leadership effectiveness, improving student and institutional performance. Research links self-regulation to higher academic achievement and stronger leadership outcomes (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007). Core components—foresight, will control, and reflection—help leaders align behaviours with educational goals, fostering environments that promote success and well-being.
Decision-Making in Educational Leadership
Decision-making is a fundamental process in educational leadership, directly impacting student achievement and institutional success. As complexity and uncertainty increase, leaders must adopt appropriate strategies to navigate challenges effectively (Byrnes, 2013; Thunholm, 2023). Understanding decision-making styles—rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant, and spontaneous—helps align choices with organisational goals (Permiakova et al., 2023; Thunholm & Henåker, 2020). Leadership styles significantly affect decision-making efficacy. Integrating self-regulation enhances leadership by linking personal development with organisational strategy, fostering flexibility in dynamic environments (T. Jackson et al., 2023). Strategic decision-making, a structured process of selecting optimal actions, is closely tied to problem-solving (Aydın, 2010; Başaran, 2008; Nutt, 2008). Simon’s (1967) framework remains influential, highlighting decision-making as a comprehensive process shaped by environmental conditions, decision contexts, and individual characteristics. Effective decision-making also relies on organisational culture, stressors, and communication processes (Bonnyventure, 2022; Sansone & Balconi, 2023). Decision-making styles vary based on cognitive and emotional factors. Rational decision-makers rely on systematic analysis, while intuitive leaders draw from experience. Dependent decisionmakers seek external validation, potentially undermining confidence (Egbaria & Zaid, 2023). Avoidant styles delay decisions due to fear of failure or overwhelming choices (Marques da Rocha et al., 2023). Spontaneous decision-makers react impulsively, often leading to less-considered outcomes (Acconito et al., 2023; Ramadhan et al., 2022). Stress and situational pressures further shape decision-making, sometimes resulting in heuristic choices. Given its complexity, decision-making requires leaders to align their approaches with institutional objectives while adapting to evolving conditions. Strategic, well-informed decisions support institutional growth, enhance leadership effectiveness, and optimise outcomes in dynamic educational settings.
Self-Regulation and Decision-Making in Schools
In the dynamic field of educational management, the role of self-regulation in decisionmaking emerges as a cornerstone for effective leadership and goal attainment. Yemelyanov (2019) introduced the Self-Regulation Model (SRM), incorporating feedback and feedforward controls to manage motivation and task difficulty. Expanding on this, Yemelyanov and Bedny (2020) integrated instrumental and value rationality, emphasising energy and information balance in decision-making. Hirsh (2012) highlighted the tension between impulsive and cognitive systems, while Ego-Depletion Theory suggests that decision-making depletes self-regulatory resources, moderated by autonomy (Vohs et al., 2008). Practical applications demonstrate that self-regulation predicts academic and social behaviours, reinforcing its role in educational leadership (Miller & Byrnes, 2001a). By fostering foresight, will control, and self-reflection, self-regulation enhances leadership effectiveness and student outcomes. Decision-making is central to school management, influencing institutional performance, staff motivation, and strategic goal achievement (Robbins et al., 2002). Educational institutions require administrators to make varied decisions in dynamic environments (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). Decision-making is especially crucial under uncertainty, such as during crises like the pandemic (Mulesa et al., 2022). Effective resource management plays a key role in strategic decisionmaking, highlighting the impact of technology on educational administration (Qendraj et al., 2023). As digital tools shape decision-making, administrators must navigate technological, social, and psychological influences to maintain adaptability Hence, purposeful decision-making by school administrators is central to achieving school objectives in educational management; this stems from self-regulation, other-related concerns, and school administrators’ actions and their effects on work motivation, organisational performance, and overall school effectiveness. The need for self-regulation skills is critical in the decisionmaking process and in goal formulation, strategy development, feedback evaluation, and objective or action modification based on such feedback (Cameron et al., 2017; Lord et al., 2010). These findings emphasise the relevance of self-regulation in educational decision-making in recent literature. In their study, Mulesa et al. (2022) highlight self-regulation’s role in resource allocation under ambiguity. Education leadership extends beyond administration to self-governance, strategic thinking, and adaptability. Budgeting, when integrated with self-control, enhances educational administration and academic success. The daily complexity of school leadership requires self-regulation for effective decisionmaking. Goleman (1998) described self-regulation as key to managing emotions and maintaining rationality. These skills improve decision implementation and feedback management (Cameron et al., 2017; Lord et al., 2010). Mulesa et al. (2022) stress the importance of strategic decision-making under uncertain conditions. Gouanet (2022) links self-regulation to cognitive flexibility, supporting effective school management. Self-regulation optimises decisions by ensuring alignment with evolving educational environments. International research underscores self-regulation as a fundamental factor in decisionmaking (Byrnes, 1998; Byrnes et al., 1999; Lord et al., 2017; Miller & Byrnes, 2001b). Local studies affirm its influence, demonstrating that self-regulated individuals make better decisions (Çelik-Ercoşkun & Köse, 2014; Güler & Şahin, 2015). Self-regulation fosters autonomy and goal prioritisation in decision-making (Aksoy & Tozduman-Yaralı, 2017; Duru et al., 2009). Ethical implications highlight the importance of assessing decision consequences (Eberlin & Tatum, 2008). Research must further explore how self-regulation affects administrators’ decision-making styles and professional development. Existing studies focus on teachers and students, leaving gaps in understanding selfregulation’s impact on educational leadership (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012; L. D. Webb et al., 2005). This study aims to bridge that gap by analysing self-regulation components—foresight, will control, and self-reflection—in school leadership. Enhanced self-regulation in administrators could improve decision-making, leading to better educational outcomes. Professional development programs should integrate self-regulation training to strengthen leadership effectiveness (Carter et al., 2015; Unver et al., 2022). Broader self-control within the school organisation can impact the decision-making processes and thus increase beneficial educational results.
Aim
The primary objective of this research is to explore the self-regulation skills of primary school administrators and their decision-making styles, based on the perspectives of both teachers and administrators. The research specifically aims to address the following questions:
How do school administrators and teachers perceive the levels of self-regulation skills in terms of foresight, will control, and self-reflection among school administrators?
What decision-making styles (rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant, spontaneous) do school administrators predominantly utilise, according to the views of school administrators and teachers?
Is there a statistically significant relationship between self-regulation skills and decisionmaking styles among school administrators, as perceived by school administrators and teachers?
How do school administrators and teachers evaluate the self-regulation skills of school administrators?
How do school administrators and teachers assess the attitudes and behaviours of school administrators in decision-making processes?
How do the quantitative findings on self-regulation skills and decision-making styles among school administrators complement the qualitative insights into administrators’ and teachers’ perspectives on these attributes?
Method
The study aims to examine multiple research enquiries pertaining to the extent of self-regulation skills, the particular decision-making strategies utilised, and the correlation between these skills and strategies as perceived by teachers and school administrators. The complex and multifaceted nature of research questions requires the use of a mixed-methods approach, which involves the integration of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. According to Creswell (1999) and Plano Clark (2017), and further explained by Ivankova et al. (2006), mixed methods improve the accuracy and applicability of the results, facilitate the combination of data from various sources, and enable a more thorough comprehension of intricate phenomena. This study employed an explanatory sequential mixed methods design to examine the relationship between school administrators’ self-regulation skills and their decision-making styles. In the first phase, quantitative data were collected and analysed using two validated scales: the “SelfRegulation Skills Scale for School Administrators” (developed by the researchers) and the “Decision-Making Styles Scale” (Scott & Bruce, 1995). Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) were conducted to validate the structure of the self-regulation scale, confirming its alignment with theoretical constructs. The CFA demonstrated high model fit indices (e.g. RMSEA = 0.043, CFI = 0.971), supporting the three-dimensional structure of foresight, will control, and self-reflection. In the second phase, qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with administrators and teachers to explore how self-regulation dimensions influenced decision-making styles in practical contexts. The explanatory sequential design was chosen to first capture the general perceptions of administrators and teachers through quantitative data and then to enrich these findings with the depth and detail provided by qualitative data. This approach allowed for an investigation into not just the “what” and “how much” but also the “why” and “how” of the observed relationships, providing a richer understanding of the phenomenon. Wisdom and Creswell (2013) emphasise that mixed-methods designs are particularly effective in educational research, offering completeness in examining complex topics like leadership and decision-making. By integrating the quantitative and qualitative phases, this study offers a holistic and in-depth exploration of the connections between self-regulation and decision-making processes among school administrators. All analyses and interviews were conducted by the researchers, with the first author overseeing qualitative data collection and the second author performing statistical analyses, ensuring the study’s rigour and reliability.
Participants
The population for quantitative research includes principals and teachers that are presently employed in public primary schools in Izmir. The population consists of 237 primary school administrators and 6,854 teachers. A stratified sampling technique was employed to select the sample group, ensuring that each subgroup within the population was adequately represented (Gay et al., 2009). For both administrators and instructors, we considered gender, educational background, and seniority as factors. The calculations were conducted independently for the 237 school administrators and 6,854 teachers at a significance level of .05, with a margin of error of 5%, to estimate the required sample size for administrators and instructors. Based on the calculations, it was determined that a total of 208 administrators and 410 teachers would adequately reflect the population. Table 1 presents the distributions of instructors in the quantitative research sample according to their gender, educational status, and seniority characteristics.
Distribution of Administrators and Teachers in the Sample by Various Variables.
Table 2 illustrates the demographic distribution of school administrators and teachers according to gender, education level, and seniority. Notably, a higher proportion of male administrators (71.6%) compared to female (28.4%) and many teachers holding an associate or bachelor’s degree (90.2%) indicate significant gender and educational background diversity within the sampled population. Accordingly, the distributions of the administrators and teachers participating in the qualitative part of the research according to various variables are presented in Table 2.
Characteristics of Participants in the Qualitative Part of the Study.
Note. F = female; M = male; T = teacher; A = administrator.
As seen in Table 2, the study group in the qualitative phase of the research consists of classroom teachers and principals working in public primary schools in İzmir. The study group was determined, ensuring participants varied in gender, age, professional seniority, and educational status to achieve maximum diversity.
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee. All participants were informed about the purpose and scope of the study and provided informed consent prior to participation. Participation was entirely voluntary, and participants were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses. No personally identifying information was collected, and all data were analysed in aggregate form to minimise any potential risk. The study was conducted in accordance with the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2017).
Research Instruments and Procedure
This study investigates the self-regulation abilities and decision-making approaches of primary school administrators, as perceived by teachers and administrators. The quantitative data for this study is collected using two scales: the “Self-Regulation Skills Scale for School Administrators,” developed by the researcher, and the “Decision-Making Styles Scale,” first produced by Scott and Bruce (1995) and later translated into Turkish by Oğuz (2008). The “SelfRegulation Skills Scale for School Administrators,” developed by the researcher, had high internal consistency. Specifically, the self-reflection subscale had Cronbach’s alpha reliability value of .94, while both the will control and foresight subscales had coefficients of 0.85. The overall dependability coefficient for the scale was computed to be 0.99. The scale accounts for 64.02% of the overall variability, with the items collected under three dimensions having factor loadings ranging from 0.88 to 0.41. The confirmatory factor analysis (χ2/SD = 1,099.259/816; RMSEA = 0.043; CFI = 0.971; TLI = 0.969; SRMR = 0.071) verified that the scale had the same structure as indicated by the exploratory factor analysis. The researcher developed the “Self-Regulation Skills and Decision-Making Styles Interview Form for School Administrators” and employed semi-structured interviews to gather qualitative data for the study. According to Smith et al. (2009), interviews in qualitative research might be characterised as “purposeful conversations.” The interview technique allows researchers to engage in flexible interaction and pose supplementary questions, enabling a thorough investigation and revealing experiences and interpretations (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013). This study employed this technique to comprehensively investigate the questions.
Data Analysis
The researchers employed a comprehensive approach by integrating both quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques within this mixed-methods research. For quantitative data analysis, descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, were utilised to provide a detailed profile of participants’ personal information. Additionally, the arithmetic mean and standard deviation were calculated to evaluate responses to the scale items, ensuring a robust understanding of the central tendencies and variability within the dataset. To investigate the relationships between school administrators’ self-regulation skills and their decision-making styles, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient and Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient were computed. These statistical methods elucidated the level and direction of the relationships, offering valuable insights into the dynamics perceived by teachers and administrators. For all quantitative analyses, SPSS software was employed, ensuring precision and consistency in the computational processes. For qualitative data, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was applied due to its strength in exploring subjective experiences and the meanings individuals attribute to them. IPA is inherently person-specific, inductive, and interrogative, making it well-suited for examining the cognitive and emotional dimensions of school administrators’ self-regulation and decisionmaking processes (Smith et al., 2009). The researchers adhered to IPA’s methodological principles to derive nuanced insights, emphasising the richness of lived experiences and providing a comprehensive exploration of these complex phenomena. To enhance the reliability of the qualitative analysis, the Miles and Huberman (2015) reliability formula was employed during the NVivo 10 data analysis process. The formula (Reliability = Agreement (64)/(Agreement (64) + Disagreement (6) yielded a high consensus rate of 91% among coders, demonstrating the robustness of the coding process. Following the initial coding phase, the researchers finalised the qualitative findings by re-evaluating participant views and main categories with input from a supervising faculty member, ensuring methodological rigour. To further strengthen validity, direct quotations from participants’ responses were systematically included, with assigned codes representing each participant. These codes were structured as follows: female teachers (1FT, 2FT, 3FT), male teachers (1MT, 2MT, 3MT), female school administrators (1FA, 2FA, 3FA), and male administrators (1MA, 2MA, 3MA). This meticulous process ensured a transparent and credible representation of the qualitative data. To further ensure the reliability and replicability of the qualitative analysis, this study employed Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as the primary methodology for deriving themes from the interview data. The coding process was systematically conducted using NVivo 10 software, which facilitated the organisation and management of large volumes of qualitative data, enabling researchers to analyse patterns and relationships efficiently while minimising the potential for researcher bias. NVivo’s advanced features supported the systematic categorisation and hierarchical organisation of codes, aligning with IPA’s focus on exploring subjective experiences (Smith et al., 2009). To evaluate inter-coder agreement, the Miles and Huberman (2015) reliability formula was applied, resulting in a high consensus rate of 91%. This robust reliability score underscores the consistency and accuracy of the thematic derivation process, ensuring that the analysis reflects a shared understanding among researchers. The coding process was conducted iteratively, with researchers cross-checking the alignment between raw data and emerging categories to ensure accuracy and consistency. Themes were refined through multiple rounds of analysis, with particular attention given to maintaining alignment with participants’ lived experiences as captured in the interview data. Direct quotations were systematically included in the findings to enhance transparency and support the interpretative claims made. These quotations not only exemplified the derived themes but also provided a direct connection between the data and the conclusions. Following the recommendations of Smith et al. (2009), the study documented the coding stages in detail, specifying the inductive approach used to allow patterns and themes to emerge naturally from the data. Furthermore, the iterative refinement of themes was documented, providing a clear audit trail that future researchers can follow to replicate the methodology. This structured and transparent approach ensures methodological rigour, enhances the reliability of the findings, and provides a replicable framework for conducting qualitative analyses in similar educational research contexts.
Results
Quantitative Analysis of School Administrators’ Self-Regulation Skills
This section details the quantitative findings derived from analysing school administrators’ responses to a self-regulation skills scale, as perceived by both administrators and teachers. The scale measures three critical dimensions: foresight, will control, and self-reflection. The analysis focused on the overall scale as well as the individual dimensions, providing a comprehensive view of the administrators’ self-regulation capabilities. The results of the descriptive analysis are summarised in Table 3.
Descriptive Analysis Findings Related to the Responses to the Self-Regulation Skills Scale and Its Subdimensions by School Administrators and Teachers.
Note. M = mean; SD = standard deviation.
Table 3 reveals that both school administrators and teachers generally possess positive views about the self-regulation skills of school administrators. The research suggests that administrators consistently rank their own self-regulation skills higher in all aspects in comparison to the ratings given by teachers. However, the scores reported by teachers are also significantly positive, suggesting a strong acknowledgement of administrators’ self-regulation abilities. Significantly, administrators rated the foresight dimension slightly higher (M = 4.53) compared to the other dimensions, indicating their proactive approach. In contrast, teachers assigned the highest rating (M = 4.25) to the self-reflection category, indicating their recognition of administrators’ introspective qualities. The convergence of average ratings among both sets of respondents demonstrates a shared acknowledgement of successful self-control among educational administrators.
Study highlights the strong interrelationships among the three sub-dimensions of self-regulation: self-reflection, will control, and foresight. The highest correlation is observed between Will Control and Foresight (r = .87), indicating a significant overlap in these dimensions, as individuals with strong will control are often able to plan and anticipate effectively. Similarly, Self-Reflection and Will Control (r = .83) exhibit a strong connection, reflecting how evaluating past actions enhances one’s ability to maintain focus and discipline. Lastly, the correlation between Self-Reflection and Foresight (r = .76) suggests that reflective practices contribute to proactive planning and future-orientated thinking. These results align with the theoretical framework, supporting the idea that self-regulation operates as a dynamic and interconnected system. The high correlations underscore the importance of fostering all three dimensions in educational leadership to enhance decision-making effectiveness.
Quantitative Findings on Decision-Making Styles of School Administrators
This study further investigated the decision-making styles of school administrators, as perceived by both the administrators themselves and the teachers. The “Decision-Making Styles Scale” used in the research includes dimensions such as intuitive, dependent, avoidant, rational, and spontaneous decision-making. Responses to the scale items were analysed separately for each dimension, and the results of the descriptive analyses are presented in Table 4.
Descriptive Analysis Findings Related to the Responses to the Decision-Making Styles Scale and Its Subdimensions by School Administrators and Teachers.
Note. M = mean; SD = standard deviation.
Table 4 presents the descriptive statistics of decision-making styles as perceived by school administrators and teachers. Both groups provided similar ratings for each style, demonstrating a consistent comprehension of decision-making behaviours. The data show that both administrators and teachers identified rational decision-making (administrators M = 4.32, teachers M = 4.14) as the most used style, indicating a preference for logical and systematic approaches to decisionmaking in school settings. Meanwhile, administrators and teachers rated the style of on-the-spot decision-making as the least used (M = 3.10 and 3.09, respectively), meaning the groups have little interest in taking hasty decisions without thorough planning. Also, the avoidant style had the lowest rating (administrators M = 3.17, teachers M = 3.17), which reflects the respondent’s unwillingness to make decisions, probably because of the fear of making the wrong choice or facing the consequences of the decision. The last dimension recognised in the study is the intuitive style, which also gained a relatively higher level, though not as high as the sensitivity, which in fact also pointed to the orientation to feelings and past experiences in taking decisions. The authors’ converged scores of the dimensions suggest an understanding of the importance and application of various decision-making methods when it comes to leadership in education. These findings imply that there is a high level of convergence between school administrators and teachers’ perceptions towards the effectiveness and suitability of the various decision-making techniques used in the administration of the school, and there is a consensus on the preference of rational and systematic forms of decision-making over other forms of decision-making that are hasty or evasive in nature.
Quantitative Findings on the Relationships Between School Administrators’ Decision-Making Styles and Self-Regulation Skills
This study examined the relationships between school administrators’ self-regulation skills and their decision-making styles. Both parametric and non-parametric analyses were used due to the non-normal distribution of administrators’ self-perceptions (Table 3), and the results are presented in Table 5.
The Relationships Between School Administrators’ Self-Regulation Skills and Decision-Making Styles, According to the Opinions of School Administrators and Teachers.
Note. Bold values indicate statistically significant correlations at p < .05 (two-tailed). Non-significant correlations are also displayed for completeness.
Table 5 presents all correlations. Bold values indicate significant correlations at p < .05. The discussion focuses on significant findings, while non-significant but theoretically relevant results are also noted. Self-regulation skills and their decision-making styles, highlighted in bold. These relationships encompass both overall self-regulation and its dimensions—foresight, self-reflection, and will control, as reflected in both administrators’ and teachers’ views. No statistically significant relationship was found between the avoidant decision-making style and self-regulation skills or its dimensions, nor between the spontaneous decision-making style and any self-regulation dimensions, according to teachers. For example, spontaneous decision-making showed no significant correlation with self-regulation for either administrators or teachers. This suggests that spontaneity may not be closely linked to self-regulatory skills in this context, despite theoretical expectations. Further analysis shows positive, though low to moderate, correlations between intuitive and dependent decision-making styles and self-regulation. The highest correlations were observed with the rational decision-making style, showing positive, moderate relationships with overall self-regulation (r = .57) and its dimensions: foresight (r = .49), self-reflection (r = .56), and will control (r = .53). From the teachers’ perspective, like administrators, intuitive and dependent styles showed positive, moderately significant correlations with self-regulation skills and their dimensions. These correlations were generally higher than those calculated based on administrators’ views. Yet, as with administrators, the highest correlations for teachers were also with the rational decisionmaking style, showing strong positive relationships between rational decision-making and overall self-regulation (r = .90), and its dimensions: foresight (r = .88), self-reflection (r = .90), and will control (r = .88). This analysis underscores a consistent recognition of the influence of rational decision-making in effectively managing and utilising self-regulation skills within school leadership, as strongly endorsed by both teachers and administrators.
Influence of Demographic Variable
The high proportion of male administrators (71.6%) compared to female (28.4%) suggests potential gendered differences in self-regulation and decision-making styles. Teachers with an advanced degree (Master’s and Doctorate: 9.8%) may emphasise different attributes of self-regulation compared to those with undergraduate qualifications, which warrants further exploration in educational settings. Equal representation in experience levels among administrators (50% each for 1–9 years and over 10 years) could influence differences in foresight, adaptability, and decision-making preferences.
Qualitative Findings on the Self-Regulation Skills of School Administrators
The qualitative findings related to the self-regulation skills of school administrators were obtained by separately analysing interviews conducted with school administrators and teachers. The results of the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis concerning the “Self-Regulation Skills of School Principals” as expressed by school administrators and teachers are presented in Table 6.
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of School Administrators’ and Teachers’ Views on Self-Regulation Skills.
Note. F = female; M = male; A = administrator; T = teacher.
According to the self-assessments by school administrators, their self-regulation skills focus particularly on willpower, self-reflection, planned and foresighted actions, empathy, and the ability to view situations from various perspectives. These evaluations indicate that administrators exhibit conscious and careful approaches in both personal and professional decision-making processes. For instance, Participant 3-M-A emphasises the importance of considering the applicability of decisions, while Participant 1-M-A highlights the significance of empathy in operational processes. This suggests that school administrators are sensitive both to their internal assessments and to the needs of those around them.
Participant 3-M-SP stated:
I value my own views and thoughts, which can indeed become the most valued opinions and thoughts. However, the applicability aspect is also crucial. We always have views and thoughts, but it’s important to balance them regarding their applicability. If there is no issue with applicability, I proceed focused on my own views and thoughts.
Participant 1-F-A said:
Of course, we value the feedback from our teachers, students, and parents. Therefore, we always learn a lesson from the feedback they provide. We try to foresee everything, but naturally, there are some things that we can’t foresee, so we evaluate using the feedback we receive from parents, teachers, and students and try to be foresighted.
Participant 2-M-A commented:
In the past, there was a pandemic situation, and if we hadn’t planned how things should be done during this period, our educational environments would have progressed in a very empty and inappropriate manner. But during these times, we evaluate situations from different angles and believe it’s better to look forward. We don’t think we could proceed healthily without the foresight in this process for both education and other environments.
Participant 1-M-A remarked:
Empathy is a must in our job. Approaching it as “I only know, this is it” could lead to wrong judgments. So, of course, we try to manage the process by believing that we are making the right decision by looking at different perspectives.
Participant 1-F-A noted:
We make forward-looking plans, and we have to look at events from different angles because we deal with children, teachers, parents, students of different characters, different structures. That’s why we must look at every event from different angles. That’s why I believe it’s necessary to analyse by taking everyone’s opinion.
Teachers’ views on the self-regulation skills of school administrators focus on willpower, self-reflection, foresight, and the ability to make instant decisions. Teachers note that administrators act based on feedback and evaluate this process, valuing feedback from teachers, parents, and students. Participant 1-F-T highlighted the importance of feedback from teachers and other stakeholders, while Participant 1-M-T emphasised the administrators’ ability to plan.
Participant 1-F-T stated:
Yes, actions are taken based on feedback, and evaluations can be made because feedback from teachers, parents, and us teachers within the school is very valuable. We are more present on the ground, and we already convey our feedback; of course, there can be problems, but evaluations are made from our feedback.
Participant 3-M-T observed:
Can make quick, impulsive decisions, and last-minute tasks can arise.
Participant 1-M-T explained:
Future-orientated plans are made to ensure operations continue appropriately. Because from the administration point, it’s very important to see ahead when managing a place. I have witnessed this before, yes.
When comparing the views of administrators and teachers, both groups agree that school administrators have strong self-regulation skills but focus on different aspects. Directors emphasise their internal processes and the applicability of their decisions, while teachers highlight administrators’ sensitivity to the external world and flexibility in decision-making processes. This situation shows that administrators balance internal and external factors well, and these skills are recognised by both themselves and teachers. Thus, the process of effective school administration must incorporate the persons’ capacity to carry out the self-evaluation and to weigh others’ opinions.
The findings of the IPA study with emphasis on the “Decision-Making Styles of School Principals” as perceived by the respondents -school administrators and teachers- are presented in Table 7.
Perceptions of School Directors and Teachers Regarding the Styles Employed by School Administrators in Their Decision-Making Process.
Note. F = female; M = male; SB = School Principal; T = Teacher.
Self-generated strategies of respondents point to the fact that their decision-making employs principal-agent reasoning, emergent, retaliatory, and instinctual styles. For instance, participants 2-M-SP and 3-M-SP equally mention the concept of rationality in decision-making, pointing to the fact that this kind of decision-making means a logical analysis and evaluation of the consequences and their relationship to the decision. On the other hand, participant 1-F-SP emphasises the fact that rational and purposefully calculated decisions are not always made having certain conditions in mind and that everyday life situations involve quick and instant decisions and actions, which proves that the administrators can learn and develop new, more diverse skills, relying on their flexibility in decision-making processes. Therefore, dependent decision-making, as focused on by F-SP, can be seen as revealing an understanding of the responsibilities involved in the respective roles, which delineates responsibility as an influence on their actions. This is the list of direct quotes related to these themes here.
Rational because both the existence of the person and the continuity of the institution, and the whole logical process you bring together, likely mean we continue in a rational decision-making mode. (2-M-A) Making a final decision coolly is very important. This requires rational decisionmaking. You need to think logically. You must lay out the pros and cons. That is, after thinking about how this decision will affect us positively or negatively, you need to make a rational decision. Logic has to be at the forefront, which I suppose falls into the rational decisionmaking part. (3-M-A) More often intuitive and spontaneous depending on the situation, we may have to make instant decisions. As I mentioned, we can make instant decisions in daily situations we experience, but I think it’s more intuitive. (1-F-A) Dependent decisions are definitely there because you have responsibilities as a director. You have a responsibility associated with your position and office. Therefore, it is not possible for us to act independently. Yes, I make dependent decisions. (3-F-A)
Teachers’ views on the decision-making styles of school administrators encompass a wide spectrum, including rational, intuitive, spontaneous, dependent, avoidant, and collaborative decision-making styles. Teachers generally note that administrators tend to make rational decisions based on data and information. Teachers also mention intuitive decision-making, suggesting administrators often rely on their experiences to make intuitive decisions. Teachers highlight the necessity of spontaneous decisions in some cases and observe that administrators sometimes make dependent decisions to obtain others’ approval.
Our principal tends to make decisions more rationally. Rather than making intuitive or dependent decisions, he progresses according to whatever is realistic and logical. (2-M-T) In terms of dominance, I observe more rational decision-making because decisions are based on data from the start, which I can say are data-based decisions. (2-F-T) Intuitive in this way, of course, he makes decisions based on his experiences, “this event happens like this, it can go this way too.” (1-F-T) Instant decision-making is definitely necessary in some situations. (2-F-T) He still feels the need for approval. He wants to get the same approval from someone else. (3-F-T)
When comparing the views of directors and teachers, both groups indicate that school administrators adopt a diverse and flexible approach to decision-making processes. Directors focus on the importance of logical thinking and evaluating outcomes in the decision-making process, while teachers note that administrators can make decisions in various styles and adapt flexibly to situations. Teachers’ views show that administrators not only make rational but also intuitive, spontaneous, and situation-dependent decisions. This comparison reveals the complexity and multifaceted nature of administrative decision-making processes, requiring various approaches for different situations.
The Integrated Results Matrix below presents (Table 8) a comprehensive evaluation of both quantitative and qualitative data, detailing the complex relationship between school administrators’ self-regulation skills and their decision-making style.
Integrated Results Matrix on the Correlation Between School Administrators’ Self-Regulation Skills and Decision-Making Style.
Note. F = female; M = male; A = Administrator; T = Teacher.
Mixed Methods Integration
The results are presented in three sections: quantitative findings, qualitative findings, and mixed methods integration. The quantitative analysis revealed significant relationships between self-regulation dimensions and decision-making styles, with rational decision-making showing the strongest positive correlation with overall self-regulation (r = .57, p <.01). Foresight, will control, and self-reflection also showed moderate correlations with intuitive and dependent decision-making styles. Avoidant and spontaneous styles showed no significant relationship with self-regulation dimensions. The qualitative findings enriched these results by providing contextual insights. For instance, administrators described using foresight and empathy when planning decisions, aligning with the quantitative results showing high foresight scores. Additionally, interviews highlighted how self-reflection allowed administrators to learn from past decisions and adjust their approaches, a theme not fully captured in the quantitative data. To integrate these findings, a mixed-methods synthesis was conducted, demonstrating that the rational decisionmaking style, strongly supported by self-regulation dimensions, is central to effective educational leadership. A path diagram was developed to visually represent the relationships between selfregulation dimensions and decision-making styles, providing a clear and accessible summary of these connections.
Integrated Results Matrix on the Correlation Between School Administrators’ Self-Regulation Skills and Decision-Making Style
The explanatory sequential design allowed for the integration of quantitative and qualitative data, offering a deeper understanding of the interplay between self-regulation skills and decisionmaking styles. Quantitative results established the statistical relationships between variables, while qualitative findings explained these relationships in practical and contextual terms. For example, the quantitative finding that foresight positively correlates with rational decision-making (r = .49, p < .01) was enriched by qualitative insights showing that administrators actively engage in predictive planning to align decisions with long-term goals. Similarly, the qualitative data illuminated how self-reflection contributes to administrators’ ability to adapt strategies, complementing the quantitative results linking self-reflection with decision-making effectiveness. Together, these findings highlight the value of integrating mixed methods to capture both the measurable and experiential aspects of educational leadership. These integrated results are summarised in Table 8, which provides a detailed synthesis of the quantitative correlations and qualitative themes, illustrating how the two datasets complement each other.
This study used a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies to thoroughly investigate the relationship between the self-regulation skills of school administrators and their decision-making styles. The quantitative results indicate that there are moderate positive correlations between self-regulation skills and different decision-making styles. This means that these talents have a good correlation with the procedures used in decision-making, and this is as follows. The qualitative findings give a better description of the elements of self-regulation, which include willpower, self-audit, anticipation, and types of decisions within rational, instinctive, reliance, and capricious decisions. The given qualitative data and the examples provided show that administrators’ self-regulation affects their level of decision-making. There is emphasis lodged in bureaucracy where decision-making is done in a systematic way with relation to some events but where administrators occasionally resort to intuitive and reliable ways of handling some prevalent situations. Such an analysis provides a rather extensive understanding of how self-regulation contributes to rational decision making of school heads, which responds to the rising importance of these competencies in educational management. It is highly useful to gain these insights when it comes to enhancing processes that boost the bureaucracy of educational settings.
Discussion and Conclusion
Findings Related to Self-Regulation Skills
The study employs an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, where the qualitative findings complement and expand upon the quantitative results, offering a comprehensive understanding of school administrators’ self-regulation skills and decision-making styles. While the quantitative analysis identifies significant relationships between self-regulation dimensions and decision-making styles, such as the strong correlation between rational decision-making and self-regulation skills, the qualitative findings provide valuable context. For example, the qualitative data elaborate on how administrators’ foresight, empathy, and perspective-taking influence their decision-making processes, revealing nuances like the preference for rationality in systematic decision-making and the occasional use of intuitive and dependent styles under complex conditions. By integrating these two approaches, the study demonstrates that statistical relationships alone cannot fully capture the complexities of self-regulation and decision-making in educational leadership. This mixed-methods approach highlights the interplay between measurable behaviours and subjective experiences, ultimately enriching the interpretation of results and enhancing the practical implications for educational policy and professional development programs targeting school administrators.
This study investigates the relationship between school administrators’ self-regulation skills and their decision-making styles by addressing several research questions. The first research question examines how school administrators and teachers perceive the levels of self-regulation skills among administrators, revealing high levels of foresight, self-reflection, and will control, supported by quantitative data indicating strong self-regulation abilities. The second research question explores the predominant decision-making styles utilised by school administrators, highlighting a strong preference for rational decision-making styles, complemented by occasional use of intuitive and dependent styles in complex situations, as evidenced by both qualitative and quantitative findings. The third research question investigates whether there is a statistically significant relationship between self-regulation skills and decision-making styles, with quantitative analysis indicating a moderately strong positive correlation (r = .57, p < .01) and qualitative insights underscoring the role of self-regulation in fostering logical and strategic decisions. The fourth research question evaluates how school administrators and teachers relate self-regulation skills to decision-making, with qualitative data emphasising themes such as empathy, strategic foresight, and reflective practices as critical factors in decision-making processes. Lastly, the fifth research question integrates quantitative and qualitative findings, demonstrating a comprehensive understanding of the studied phenomena, where quantitative data establish measurable relationships and qualitative narratives provide contextual depth, illustrating how administrators apply self-regulation in decision-making practices.
School administrators exhibit high levels of foresight and self-reflection, essential for proactive and introspective leadership in schools. These abilities enhance strategic planning and decision-making by allowing administrators to consider past actions and anticipate future challenges. According to Dedov et al. (2021), foresight sessions in professional self-development are crucial for future specialists, directly linking to the proactive skills required for school leadership. Yan’s (2020) research underscores the critical role of self-evaluation and self-reflection in self-regulated learning, highlighting their importance in educational leadership and effective decision-making. Yan’s findings also indicate that individuals with strong self-regulation abilities typically achieve their goals, which is promising for school efficacy (Bertrams et al., 2016). School administrators must possess the flexibility and foresight to thrive in goal-orientated and environmentally influenced settings (Tschannen-Moran, 2009). Derkach et al. (2023) reveal that foresight projects can significantly improve the educational process by enabling leaders to predict future trends and challenges more accurately. Noman (2023) emphasises the crucial role of visioning in leadership, stating that strong foresight is essential for creating a relevant and responsive educational vision. Belenkova (2021) examines metacognitive skills and reflection as key components of effective self-education, highlighting their importance in enhancing educational leadership. Collectively, these studies underscore the importance of self-awareness and foresight in improving educational leadership, aligning with the attached document’s findings on the significance of these abilities in school administrators’ work.
Decision-Making Styles
Research indicates that most school administrators make logical decisions, significantly impacting organisational outcomes and instructional leadership. This methodical approach facilitates strategic implementation and effective problem-solving in educational environments. Ding et al. (2020) found that emotional intelligence is crucial in decision-making, as it helps educational leaders control their emotional reactions, resulting in better-informed and objective decisions. Amalia et al. (2020) emphasise the importance of logical decisions in educational settings, where decisions affect teachers, parents, and students. Their findings indicate that a structured approach to decision-making facilitates clearer and more effective leadership. Tomas et al. (2019) highlight the growing importance of data-driven decision-making in education, where logical examination of data improves decision-making and learning outcomes, helping educators adapt to the complexities of educational settings.
Our study aimed to determine whether decision-making styles and administrators’ capacities for self-regulation are correlated. The findings indicate a positive correlation between self-regulation abilities and rational decision-making style, but no significant relationship with the spontaneous decision-making style. Literature supports this finding, suggesting that rational decision-making develops alongside self-regulation skills (Byrnes, 1998; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2009; Wood & Bandura, 1989; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986). Self-regulation showed little to no correlation with avoidant or spontaneous decision-making styles, consistent with research indicating that future-focused individuals do not favour these styles (Geisler & Allwood, 2018). Self-regulation involves thinking ahead and planning, which are incompatible with impulsive or avoidant decision-making. Teachers and school administrators generally believe that administrators make decisions logically, aligning with literature indicating that school administrators use a rational decision-making process (Hariri et al., 2016; Olcum & Titrek, 2015; Uğurlu, 2013). Rational decision-making, involving weighing potential outcomes and choosing the best course of action, is essential for goal achievement (Rebore, 2001; Shiloh et al., 2001). However, research also emphasises that decision-making processes in school administration have limited rationality (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
School administrators also exhibit dependent and intuitive decision-making styles, demonstrating flexibility in unclear or complex situations. Flexibility is crucial for navigating educational challenges. Ali Khan et al. (2023). found that intuition complements rational strategies by offering prompt, experience-based solutions, positively influencing transformational leadership styles. Dependent decision-making harnesses diverse perspectives, enhancing the process, especially when collective input is vital (Iqbal et al., 2020). They found that leaders combining analytical and intuitive styles encourage greater involvement in decision-making, enhancing organisational effectiveness in educational institutions. These findings underscore the importance of adaptable leadership in education, balancing rational, intuitive, and dependent styles for optimal outcomes.
Relationships Between Self-Regulation and Decision-Making
Educational outcomes are directly impacted by the integration of decision-making styles and self-regulation. Administrators with strong self-regulation foster positive learning environments and successfully implement educational reforms. Research indicates that improved self-regulation is crucial for raising student success and boosting institutional effectiveness. Lauermann and Butler (2021) show that teachers’ motivations, emotions, and self-control significantly influence their professional judgement and instructional strategies, affecting students’ learning outcomes. Vasconcellos et al. (2020) found that students’ adaptive outcomes are positively correlated with autonomous motivation, highlighting self-regulation’s role in educational success. Li and Bagasol (2023) suggest a strong positive correlation between college students’ cognitive styles and self-regulated learning, enhancing student outcomes. García-Pérez et al. (2021) demonstrate that college students modify their learning strategies for various courses, impacting their academic performance and capacity for self-regulated learning.
Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Data
This study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative interviews with quantitative findings to enhance the validity and reliability of the research. The interviews provided specific instances that clarified the quantitative data, which can often be abstract. The study found congruence between qualitative interviews and quantitative results regarding the self-regulation abilities and decision-making approaches of school administrators. Qualitative interviews with teachers and administrators supported quantitative findings indicating high self-regulation skills, highlighting themes of will control, self-reflection, and predictive and sudden decision-making, with a notable emphasis on self-regulation. Rational decision-making was frequently cited in both interviews and quantitative data, aligning closely. Administrators also mentioned intuitive, spontaneous, and dependent styles, though they preferred rational, intuitive, and dependent styles, suggesting a nuanced approach to leadership decision-making. Quantitative data indicated that spontaneous decision-making is the least preferred approach, and qualitative interviews did not reveal a preference for avoidant decision-making, possibly due to reluctance to admit using such styles (Donaldson & Grant-Vallone, 2002; Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
The inclusion of qualitative data from interviews enriched the findings by highlighting the crucial roles of empathy and perspective-taking in educational leadership. Administrators emphasised the significance of empathy in their roles, promoting inclusive and thoughtful decision-making processes, while teachers stressed the importance of administrators being receptive to feedback, enhancing cooperative educational management. Rezaei et al. (2023) showed that arts education and reflective practices in medical training enhance empathy and perspective-taking abilities, essential for effective leadership in any educational context. Similarly, Lobchuk et al. (2021) found that cognitive empathy significantly influences the efficacy of educational leadership across various academic departments. Aslan and Köksal Akyol (2020) demonstrated that empathy training programs positively impact children’s ability to understand others’ perspectives, suggesting that administrators could use similar strategies to create a more empathetic and inclusive educational environment. These findings underscore the importance of empathy and perspective-taking in improving educational leadership, contributing to more effective, inclusive, and responsive educational environments. Integrating self-regulation, decision-making styles, empathy, and perspective-taking can substantially enhance educational settings.
Implications and Recommendations
The findings of the study indicate that school administrators with robust self-regulation skills are more inclined to employ efficient decision-making methods. There is a measurable and moderately positive relationship between self-regulation skills and various decision-making styles, implying that administrators with strong self-regulation can effectively use different decisionmaking styles. Themes from interviews, such as will control, self-reflection, and foresight, contribute to both rational and intuitive decision-making. Recent literature supports these findings: Rashedi et al. (2021) identified a significant relationship between self-regulation and decisionmaking styles in educational leaders, affecting their effectiveness in managing schools. They suggest that higher self-regulation skills improve the rationality and adaptability of administrators’ decisions (Cazzell et al., 2012). Sharma et al. (2020) also found that combining rational and intuitive decision-making, supported by robust self-regulation, yields superior results in educational environments. This supports the notion that effective leadership requires an adaptable decisionmaking approach, dependent on the leader’s self-regulatory capacities (Sharma et al., 2020). Fernandez-Rio et al. (2017) investigated the impact of self-regulation on leadership decision effectiveness in education, finding that leaders with greater self-regulation engage in proactive and well-thought-out decision-making processes, enhancing school performance. These studies confirm the crucial role of self-regulation in improving decision-making among school administrators, highlighting the importance of developing self-regulation skills in educational leaders to enhance their decision-making abilities and improve educational outcomes.
The study highlights those demographic factors, such as tenure and educational background, that significantly influence school administrators’ self-regulation and decisionmaking styles. Longer-tenured administrators often exhibit more adaptive decision-making due to their experience, while less-tenured administrators rely on structured, rational approaches, underscoring the need for targeted training to enhance intuitive and reflective skills. Similarly, administrators with formal educational leadership training are better at employing reflective practices and foresight, emphasising the value of professional development tailored to address leadership gaps. Schools can leverage these insights to design recruitment and training policies that prioritise self-regulation competencies, providing tailored support to administrators based on their experience and educational background to improve leadership effectiveness.
Conclusion
The study’s results demonstrate a clear link between the self-regulation abilities of school administrators and their decision-making styles. The findings indicate that administrators who possess strong self-regulation skills are better equipped to effectively employ different decisionmaking approaches. Both the qualitative insights illustrating themes like self-reflection, will control, and foresight and the quantitative data demonstrating moderately positive correlations support this. These abilities are essential because they help administrators think more strategically and make well-informed decisions by improving their capacity to anticipate problems in the future and reflect on past decisions. The studies by Noman (2023), Yan (2020), Derkach et al. (2023), and Belenkova (2021) further support that self-regulation is essential in enabling school leaders to adapt to complex educational demands effectively. Furthermore, incorporating rational, intuitive, and dependent decision-making styles, as proposed by Ding et al. (2020) and Amalia et al. (2020). The studies conducted by Iqbal et al. (2020), Fernandez-Rio et al. (2017), and Ali Khan et al. (2023) emphasise the necessity for educational leaders to possess adaptability and promptness. In summary, these findings confirm that the cultivation and improvement of self-regulation and adaptive decision-making abilities are essential for school administrators, guaranteeing their effective leadership in ever-changing and varied educational environments. As educational environments progress, it is essential for those in leadership positions to continuously develop their skills to maintain and improve educational outcomes.
Interviews with school administrators and teachers regarding the decision-making styles of school administrators align closely with the findings from quantitative data, particularly in relation to the most employed decision-making style. Both interviews with school administrators and teachers consistently indicate that school administrators frequently employ a rational decisionmaking approach. Quantitative data supports this claim, showing that school administrators from both groups have a strong preference for the rational decision-making style. Qualitative interviews emphasise the importance of adhering to a composed and logical decision-making process to ensure the smooth functioning of the school. In interviews, school administrators have stated that they employ spontaneous, intuitive, and dependent decision-making styles. The frequency of these styles employed by school administrators has been determined through qualitative interviews to be rational, intuitive, spontaneous, and dependent, in that specific sequence. In contrast to the qualitative findings, the quantitative data indicate that the spontaneous decision-making style is the least favoured. Furthermore, the qualitative interviews did not yield any findings regarding the avoidant decision-making style, which was found to be moderately utilised based on the quantitative data collection tool. The reason for this disparity can be attributed to the school administrators’ desire to avoid being perceived as deficient in critical managerial abilities, such as decision-making (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). The likelihood of this bias is increased when teacher interviews reveal that administrators at schools occasionally make decisions in an avoidant manner (Donaldson & Grant-Vallone, 2002).
Given the research findings indicating that school administrators who possess strong selfregulation skills exhibit more effective decision-making abilities, it is advisable for educational institutions to introduce focused training programmes. These programmes should prioritise the cultivation of self-regulation skills, including emotional intelligence, strategic planning, and reflective practices. School administrators can make better decisions, manage complex educational challenges, and lead their schools more successfully by enhancing these skills. All administrators should have access to these training programmes as part of their regular professional development plans so they are prepared for the demands of their positions in fast-paced learning environments.
It is advised that researchers studying education look more closely at the relationships school administrators’ self-regulation and decision-making styles have. This could include longterm research projects that evaluate the effects of focused training on self-regulation on administrative choices and learning objectives. Researchers should also investigate the relationships between various educational leadership philosophies and self-regulation components to determine which approaches work best in which kinds of educational settings. These studies would contribute to our understanding of the function of self-regulation in educational leadership and provide guidance for creating training programmes that are more effective and more suited to the needs of various educational settings.
In conclusion, this study highlights the significant role of self-regulation skills in shaping effective decision-making among school administrators. Administrators with strong foresight, will control, and self-reflection are better equipped to make rational, strategic decisions that positively impact school management and student outcomes. These findings suggest that professional development programs focusing on self-regulation, including emotional intelligence, strategic planning, and reflective practices, can enhance administrators’ leadership effectiveness.
Practical Implications for School Policies and Administrator Training
The study’s findings provide actionable insights for enhancing school policies and designing targeted training programs for administrators. First, the strong correlation between selfregulation skills and rational decision-making underscores the importance of cultivating foresight, will control, and self-reflection through professional development. Training programs should prioritise the integration of these skills into decision-making practices, equipping administrators to manage complex challenges systematically. Second, the study highlights the need for empathy and perspective-taking in leadership roles. These qualities can be nurtured through workshops focused on emotional intelligence, fostering inclusivity, and collaborative decision-making. Research by Rezaei et al. (2023) and Lobchuk et al. (2021) emphasises that empathy-based training programs can significantly enhance administrators’ capacity to respond to diverse educational needs.
Third, the findings advocate for the adoption of data-driven decision-making practices in school policies. Administrators should receive training on how to utilise quantitative and qualitative data effectively to make informed decisions, as highlighted by Tomas et al. (2019). These initiatives could include case studies, simulations, and mentorship opportunities to bridge theoretical knowledge with real-world application. Finally, self-regulation-focused training should be institutionalised in professional development curricula. Such programs can incorporate techniques like strategic planning, reflective exercises, and scenario-based problem-solving, enabling administrators to adapt to evolving educational demands. By linking these skills to policy reforms, schools can foster a culture of proactive leadership and continuous improvement.
Limitations
While this study provides significant insights into the relationship between self-regulation skills and decision-making styles, several limitations should be noted. The research focused exclusively on public primary schools in Izmir, which may limit the generalisability of the findings to other regions or educational contexts. Additionally, both the quantitative and qualitative data were based on self-reported measures, introducing the potential for biases such as social desirability. Furthermore, the study captures only a single point in time, offering a snapshot of perceptions and behaviours without exploring longitudinal trends or changes over time.
Future research should explore the long-term impact of self-regulation training on decisionmaking and learning outcomes. Additionally, investigating the interplay between different leadership styles and self-regulation components would provide valuable insights into tailoring professional development programs for diverse educational settings. By addressing these gaps, researchers can contribute to a deeper understanding of the critical role self-regulation plays in educational leadership.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the use of DeepL (https://www.deepl.com/) and Grammarly (
) during the translation, language, and editing processes of this work.
Author Note
This article is derived from the doctoral dissertation completed by the first author at Ankara University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Department of Educational Administration, under the supervision of the second author.
Ethical Considerations
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Ankara University Social Sciences Ethics Committee Decision (Approval code: 42, 01/02/2022).
Consent to Participate
All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. Participation was voluntary and anonymised, with no foreseeable risk to participants.
Author Contributions
Özgün Aykut: Conceptualisation, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, visualisation, supervision, project administration. Şakir Çınkır: Conceptualisation, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.