Physical Exercise and EFL Learners’ Communication Competence: Indirect Pathways Through L2 Grit,L2 Growth Mindset,and Willingness to Communicate

Abstract

This study examines how physical exercise relates to EFL learners’ communication competence by fostering L2 grit, a L2 growth mindset, and willingness to communicate (L2 WTC). Using a cross-sectional survey design with exploratory factor analysis (EFA), two-way between-subjects ANOVA, and structural equation modeling (SEM) on 776 first-year Chinese EFL students (aged 18–22) with no international experience, the study revealed no significant effect of exercise type (individual, dual, or team sports) on these traits, structural equation modeling uncovered a positive association between exercise frequency and L2 grit. Greater L2 grit fosters a stronger growth mindset, which enhances L2 WTC and ultimately improves learners’ self-perceived communication competence. These findings provide the first evidence of physical activity’s indirect role in language learning through positive psychology constructs. Highlighting the need to address learners’ physical and psychological well-being, this study advocates for integrating physical exercise into EFL programs to support both linguistic and personal development. By fostering holistic learning environments, educators and policymakers can better equip learners to thrive in an increasingly disrupted and complex era.

Keywords

physical exercise L2 grit L2 growth mindset willingness to communicate communication competence interdisciplinary study structural equation modeling physical activity

Introduction

For many EFL learners, confidently using English in real-life situations represents the ultimate goal (Leeming et al., 2024). A key factor in achieving this is willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC), defined as the “readiness to enter into discourse at a specific time with specific individuals, using an L2” (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547). L2 WTC is widely recognized as a key precursor to actual language use and communication behaviors (Peng, 2025).

In recent years, positive psychology has gained momentum in second language acquisition (SLA) research (Dewaele et al., 2019; Gregersen et al., 2016). Researchers have explored how positive traits, such as L2 grit and a growth mindset, contribute to learners’ L2 WTC (Zhang et al., 2024). Grit, defined as “perseverance and passion for long-term goals” (Duckworth et al., 2007, p. 1087), has shown strong connections to L2 WTC, both in its general form (Bensalem et al., 2023) and as a domain-specific construct (Ebn-Abbasi et al., 2022). Similarly, a L2 growth mindset—the belief that language abilities can improve through effort—has also been linked to L2 WTC (Zhang & Yao, 2025). However, the connection between L2 WTC and self-perceived communication competence remains underexplored.

Meanwhile, physical exercise, defined as “planned [and] structured physical activity” (Colberg et al., 2016, p. 2065), has been associated with positive psychology constructs, such as grit (Klappa et al., 2020) and growth mindset (Orvidas et al., 2018). Xu and He (2025) claim that physical education extends beyond physical skill acquisition, serving as a medium for cultivating creativity, resilience and emotional wellbeing—traits that reflect the L2 grit and growth mindset essential to our study. Drawing on Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory, which suggests that positive emotions expand cognitive capacities and build enduring personal resources, it is plausible that physical exercise fosters positive emotions and resilience, which could enhance L2-specific grit and L2 growth mindset. In turn, these traits may positively influence L2 WTC and, ultimately, self-perceived communication competence. However, no research has yet examined these interrelated factors within a single framework.

This study fills this gap by proposing and testing a comprehensive model that links physical exercise, L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and self-perceived communication competence. The research focuses on Chinese EFL learners for two key reasons. First, the recent implementation of China’s “Double Reduction” policy has emphasized the importance of physical exercise in schools, providing a unique opportunity to investigate how structured physical activities can shape language-related traits (e.g., L2 grit and growth mindset), ultimately improving communication competence (Liu et al., 2023). Second, like many EFL learners focused on exam preparation, Chinese students are often viewed as passive language users, with limited engagement in spoken English (Peng, 2025; Peng & Woodrow, 2010). This interdisciplinary study may offer innovative strategies for boosting L2 WTC and communication skills for EFL learners in Chinese and similar educational settings.

This study contributes to the field of both second language acquisition (SLA) and interdisciplinary researches by (a) Theoretically, it integrates broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001) with SLA positive psychology, proposing a novel chain from physical exercise to L2 outcomes; (b) Methodologically, it employs a mixed ANOVA-SEM approach on a large cross-sectional sample (N = 776), addressing gaps in interdisciplinary measurement gaps; (c) Empirically, it provides first evidence of indirect pathways in Chinese EFL contexts, with implications for policy under the “Double Reduction” framework.

Literature Review

L2 WTC and Self-Perceived Communication Competence

Extensive research has identified both enduring (trait-like) and context-dependent (state-like) factors that shape L2 WTC (Jin & Lee, 2022; J. Zhang et al., 2018). Trait-like factors are relatively stable across time and situations, whereas state-like factors vary depending on specific contexts (Peng, 2025). These two types of factors, either independently or in combination, significantly influence an individual’s L2 WTC, which in turn drives their engagement in using the second language (Peng, 2012, 2025; J. Zhang et al., 2018). Furthermore, frequent use of an L2 can enhance learners’ fluency and foster a stronger sense of self-perceived communication competence (Balouchi & Samad, 2021; Leeming et al., 2024; Sato & Lam, 2021). Nevertheless, the connection between L2 WTC and self-perceived communication competence remains underexplored, warranting further investigation.

Positive Psychology in SLA: L2 Grit and L2 Growth Mindset

In recent years, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has increasingly incorporated insights from positive psychology (Dewaele et al., 2019; MacIntyre, 2016). Researchers have explored how positive psychological traits, such as L2 grit and a L2 growth mindset, contribute to learners’ L2 WTC (Ebn-Abbasi et al., 2022; Zhang & Yao, 2025).

Grit consists of two key components: perseverance of effort and consistency of interests (Duckworth, 2017). Perseverance of effort reflects the ability to maintain effort despite challenges or setbacks, while consistency of interests represents the capacity to stay focused on goals in the face of obstacles (Duckworth et al., 2007). Studies reveal that individuals with high levels of grit tend to exert greater effort and show remarkable persistence, leading to better achievements across various fields (Duckworth, 2017; Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014). Within the field of L2 learning, grit was initially studied as a general personality trait (Feng & Papi, 2020). General grit has been positively associated with learners’ L2 WTC (Alrabai, 2024; Lan et al., 2021; Lee, 2022; Lee & Hsieh, 2019; Lee & Lee, 2020; Yu & Ma, 2024). Recently, however, grit has been conceptualized as a language-specific construct known as L2 grit (Shirvan et al., 2022; Solhi et al., 2025). While studies have identified a positive relationship between L2 grit and L2 WTC, this connection remains underexplored and warrants further investigation (Ebn-Abbasi et al., 2022).

Mindsets refer to beliefs about whether human traits—such as intelligence—are fixed or malleable (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). People with fixed mindsets (entity theories) see abilities as unchangeable, while those with growth mindsets (incremental theories) believe that abilities can be developed through effort (Dweck, 2012; Wood, 2000). In the context of L2 learning, L2 growth mindset, which emphasize the belief that language ability improves with effort and practice, have gained significant attention (Lou & Noels, 2016, 2017, 2019; Lou et al., 2022). Several studies have found a positive association between growth mindsets and L2 WTC (Lee & Taylor, 2024; Zhang & Yao, 2025). However, L. J. Zhang et al. (2024) reported no significant relationship, suggesting that further research is needed to clarify this link. L2 growth mindset, specifically, have been positively associated with L2 WTC in various studies (Hejazi et al., 2023; Ho et al., 2025; Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2024; Yin et al., 2025; Yu & Ma, 2024). Despite these findings, limited research has examined how both psychological traits—L2 grit and L2 growth mindset—interact and contribute to learners’ L2 WTC (Yu & Ma, 2024). Further exploration of their combined influence could provide deeper insights into fostering effective language learning.

Impact of Physical Exercise on L2 Learning

Physical exercise refers to structured, intentional activities like workouts, as opposed to general physical activity, which includes any movement that expends energy (Colberg et al., 2016). This study focuses on physical exercise due to its potential for integration into L2 learning programs.

A growing body of research highlights the extensive benefits of physical exercise on various aspects of our life, including physical health (Sigal et al., 2006), mental health (Biddle et al., 2019), alleviation of depression (O’Sullivan et al., 2023), creativity (Zhao et al., 2022), and cognitive abilities (Chang et al., 2025). Recent studies further highlight the transdisciplinary impact of physical activity. For instance, Chen et al. (2025) found that physical activity positively predicts university students’ career adaptability, with psychological capital (a construct overlapping with positive traits like resilience and self-efficacy) and physical activity effectiveness acting as serial mediators. This indicates that physical exercise exerts significant effects beyond physical health by shaping psychological resources that extend to other domains, such as L2 learning. While the connection between physical exercise and L2 learning remains relatively unexplored, emerging evidence points to an intriguing relationship. For instance, Segaert et al. (2018) discovered that individuals with higher levels of aerobic fitness experienced fewer “tip-of-the-tongue” (TOT) moments—those frustrating times when a word is known but cannot be recalled. This was attributed to enhanced oxygenation of the brain, which supports cognitive processes such as memory and language retrieval. Building on this, Fernandes et al. (2024) demonstrated that regular aerobic exercise improved word recognition, underscoring the role of physical fitness in boosting language comprehension.

Beyond its direct impact on linguistic abilities, physical exercise contributes to the development of key psychological traits, such as grit and a growth mindset. Studies have shown that regular exercise fosters grit (Bae et al., 2024; Dunston et al., 2022; Klappa et al., 2020) and reinforces the belief that effort leads to progress (Rosenberg, 2023). For example, achieving fitness milestones—like running a longer distance or lifting heavier weights—provides tangible evidence that sustained effort results in improvement. This experience aligns with the principles of a growth mindset, which asserts that abilities are not fixed but can be developed through dedication and hard work. However, research on the link between exercise and growth mindsets has produced mixed results. For instance, Orvidas et al. (2018) found no significant connection, suggesting the need for further exploration into how exercise frequency, type, and context influence mindset development.

Interestingly, team sports appear to generate stronger positive emotions and foster deeper social bonds than individual forms of exercise. According to Campo et al. (2019) and Pluhar et al. (2019), team sports often promote feelings of gratitude, peer support, and shared experiences, all of which enhance psychological resilience. In contrast, individual sports, while more goal-oriented, may be associated with higher levels of anxiety or depression. These differences in emotional and social dynamics across exercise types could play a critical role in shaping traits like L2 grit and L2 growth mindset, yet this area remains underexplored.

Physical exercise, as a context for managing challenges (Sproule et al., 2011), aligns with Fredrickson’s (2001) Broaden-and-Build theory, which posits that positive emotional experiences enhance cognitive-behavioral skills. Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory provides a valuable lens to understand these connections. The theory posits that positive emotions expand cognitive flexibility and encourage exploratory behaviors, which over time help individuals build skills and resilience. Applied to language learning, this suggests that learners with a greater L2 WTC are more likely to engage in diverse language-use opportunities (the “broaden” effect), which gradually enhances their communication confidence and fluency (the “build” effect). Despite these insights, To our knowledge, there seems no study has yet examined the role of physical exercise—considering both its types (e.g., team, individual, dual) and frequency—on L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and self-perceived communication competence within a unified framework.

Therefore, this study aims to addresses three gaps: (a) lack of integrated models linking exercise to L2 traits (Segaert et al., 2018); (b) underexplored indirect pathways via L2 grit/mindset in EFL contexts (Ebn-Abbasi et al., 2022); (c) no examination of exercise type/frequency in Chinese policy settings (Liu et al., 2023).

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research Questions

RQ1. To what extent do exercise type (individual, dual, team) and their interaction with frequency influence EFL learners’ L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and self-perceived communication competence?

RQ2. What are the direct and indirect effects of exercise frequency on these outcomes via the hypothesized pathways?

RQ3. What are the indirect effects of exercise frequency via L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, and L2 WTC on self-perceived communication competence?

Hypotheses Addressing RQ2

To answer RQ2, we formulated six hypotheses guided by Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

The proposed conceptual model of the current study.

Research suggests that physical exercise is positively linked to grit (Bae et al., 2024; Dunston et al., 2022; Klappa et al., 2020). Based on this, we propose:

H1: Exercise frequency positively contributes to the development of L2 grit.

Research suggests that physical activity is positively linked to growth mindset (Rosenberg, 2023). Therefore, we propose:

H2: Exercise frequency promotes the cultivation of a L2 growth mindset.

Given the strong connection between L2 grit and growth mindset (as demonstrated in Lam & Zhou’s 2025 meta-analysis), we further propose:

H3: L2 grit positively influences the development of a L2 growth mindset.

L2 grit also equips learners to navigate communication challenges, boosting their willingness to communicate (Ebn-Abbasi et al., 2022). Thus, we hypothesize:

H4: L2 grit is positively associated with L2 WTC.

Growth mindsets encourage learners to view mistakes as opportunities to improve, which, in turn, enhances their L2 WTC (Zarrinabadi et al., 2021). Therefore, we propose:

H5: A L2 growth mindset is positively associated with L2 WTC.

Finally, as L2 WTC is closely tied to language use and self-perceived competence (Jin & Lee, 2022), we hypothesize:

H6: L2 WTC positively contributes to the development of self-perceived communication competence.

Method

Participants

During the 2023 to 2024 academic year, a total of 776 first-year EFL students (258 males and 518 females) from a vocational college in Southwest China took part in the study. Convenience sampling via the institution’s internal online platform was used, which provided a clear and detailed description of the study’s purpose. Post-hoc G*Power analysis confirms N = 776 exceeds required 200 for CB-SEM (f = 0.25, α = .05, power = 0.95). Besides, this study is approved by the intuitional ethical review. All participants were enrolled in both physical education and English courses, ensuring they engaged in physical exercise at least once a week, with most reporting daily per self-reports. Participation was entirely voluntary, with students joining after submitting signed consent forms. The participants, aged between 18 and 22 years (M = 19.59, SD = 2.15), had each studied English for 10 to 13 years in formal educational settings but had no prior experience living abroad. Based on their self-evaluations, their English proficiency levels ranged from B1 (intermediate) to C1 (advanced) on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).

Data Collection and Measures

A research announcement was posted on the university’s website, inviting students to voluntarily register and provide consent to participate. Since all participants were enrolled in both English courses and physical education, they maintained regular exercise routines. Before data collection, the first author conducted a 30-min workshop to introduce key concepts such as L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, and L2 WTC, since the participants are non-expert Chinese students.

The survey gathered comprehensive data, including demographic details (gender, age, years of English study, self-assessed English proficiency, and overseas experience), physical exercise habits, L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and self-perceived communication competence. To ensure both cultural sensitivity and linguistic accuracy, the survey scales underwent a rigorous back-translation process. Initially, a senior Chinese EFL instructor with a PhD in TESOL translated the English survey items into Chinese. Then, a second independent translator back-translated the Chinese version into English. Any discrepancies between the original and back-translated versions were carefully reviewed and resolved through collaboration. The finalized Chinese survey was pilot-tested with 30 EFL students to confirm its clarity, cultural relevance, and validity for the target population. It resulted in minor adjustments for clarity only. The final survey was administered online via Wenjuanxing, a widely used platform in China equivalent to Qualtrics, taking approximately 20 min to complete. For reader convenience, Table 1 provides a summary of the measurement instruments

Table 1.

Summary of the Measurement Instruments.

Construct	Number of items	Response scale	Dimensionality	Items per dimension
Physical exercise	2	Categorical (type: individual/dual/team; duration per day: <1 hr, 1–2 hr, 2–3 hr, >3 hr)	Unidimensional	Type: 1 item; Duration: 1 item
L2 Grit	11	1–5 Likert (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)		11
L2 growth mindset	8			8
L2 WTC	14			14
Self-perceived communication competence (SPCC)	12	0%–100% (rescaled to 1–5 for analyses by dividing by 20)		12

Source. Hayes and Coutts (2020).

Note. Total items across the questionnaire: 65 (excluding demographics). Each construct was treated as unidimensional based on EFA results indicating four overall factors. McDonald’s omega (ω) values for reliability: L2 Grit = 0.96; Growth Language Mindset = 0.94; L2 WTC = 0.92; SPCC = 0.95. Exercise habits not applicable for omega as categorical.

Physical exercise was assessed using categorical duration items adapted from guidelines in Colberg et al. (2016), which captured both the type and frequency of exercise, aligned with IPAQ for behavioral accuracy (Strath et al., 2013). Participants chose one type of physical activity from three categories: Individual sports (e.g., aerobics, martial arts, yoga), Dual sports (e.g., ping-pong, badminton), or Team sports (e.g., basketball, football, volleyball). They also reported the frequency (duration per day) of their exercise on a scale from 1 (<1 hr per day) to 4 (>3 hrs per day).

L2 grit was measured using an 11-item scale (α = .98) adopted from Shirvan et al. (2022) and Solhi et al. (2025). An example item is: “I work hard to improve my English ability.” Participants rated their agreement on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (not like me at all) to 5 (very much like me).

L2 growth mindset was evaluated with an 8-item scale (α = .98) derived from Hejazi et al. (2023) and Ho et al. (2025). A sample item is: “I believe I can always substantially improve my English ability.” Participants indicated their agreement on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

L2 WTC was assessed using a 14-item scale (α = .98) developed by Lee and Hsieh (2019), which measured participants’ willingness to communicate in both face-to-face and online contexts. An example item is: “When you have an opportunity to give a presentation in English in front of your classmates.” Responses were rated on a scale from 1 (not willing at all) to 5 (absolutely willing).

Self-perceived communication competence was measured using a 12-item scale (α = .97) adapted from McCroskey and McCroskey (1988). This scale evaluated participants’ perceived competence in various communication contexts and with different interlocutors. A sample item is: “Talk in a large meeting of friends.” Participants rated their competence on a scale from 1 (completely incompetent) to 100 (competent). Afterwards, the rates would be rescaled to 1 to 5 by dividing by 20.

Data Analysis

To address the two research questions, a systematic six-step analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics 28 and IBM SPSS Amos 22. Specifically, AMOS v. 22 was selected for its robust handling of covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM), suitable for our large sample and theory-driven model testing (Hair et al., 1998). It excels in fit indices and bootstrapping for mediation, outperforming alternatives like SmartPLS for confirmatory analyses.

Frequency Analysis: A frequency test was performed to examine how often participants engaged in three types of physical exercise and their daily participation rates.

Validity and internal reliability: The validity of the questionnaire was assessed by examining the item loading values across four constructs (L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and perceived communication competence) (see Table A in the appendix). To ensure unidimensional post-adaptation, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed and it revealed four latent factors, each with loading values greater than 0.5, demonstrating strong and meaningful associations. Reliability was verified using multiple measures: Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .97 to .98, Composite Reliability (CR) surpassed 0.8, and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) exceeded 0.5 (see Table 2). These results confirm the robustness and consistency of the questionnaire.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations: Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were calculated for all variables. Pearson’s correlation analysis was also performed to explore the relationships between variables.

Two-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA: Four separate two-way mixed ANOVAs were conducted. The type of physical exercise (for RQ1) and frequency of participation (for RQ2) served as predictors, while L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and self-perceived communication competence were examined as outcome variables.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis: A SEM analysis was conducted to explore the effects of physical exercise on self-perceived communication competence. This analysis also considered the mediating roles of L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, and L2 WTC. Single-indicator (e.g., exercise duration) with fixed error variance (0.15) based on reliability, standardized for analysis.

Table 2.

Validity and Internal Reliability.

Constructs	Sample (N = 776)
Constructs	Loading (>0.5)	α (>.8)	CR (>0.8)	AVE (>0.5)
L2 Grit	0.82–0.92	.98	0.97	0.57
L2 growth mindset	0.91–0.93	.98	0.98	0.86
L2 WTC	0.85–0.91	.98	0.96	0.63
SPCC	0.82–0.90	.97	0.96	0.69

Note. SPCC = Self-Perceived Communication Competence.

Results

Preliminary Analysis

Prior to conducting the primary analyses, data were screened for normality and potential common-method variance (CMV) to ensure the robustness of subsequent findings. Normality assessments revealed skewness values ranging from −0.12 to 0.45 and kurtosis values from −0.35 to 0.78, all falling within the acceptable threshold of ±2, indicating no substantial deviations from univariate normality (Hair et al., 1998). Multivariate normality was further evaluated using Mardia’s coefficient, which yielded a value of 1.89 (p > .05), confirming that the data met assumptions for parametric testing without requiring transformations. To address concerns of CMV, given the self-report nature of the survey, Harman’s single-factor test was performed, resulting in an explained variance of 28.4%—well below the 50% threshold suggestive of bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Additionally, full collinearity testing produced variance inflation factors (VIFs) all below 3.3, further mitigating CMV risks and supporting the validity of the hypothesized relationships (Kock, 2017).

Descriptive Analysis

As summarized in Table 3, participants showed the highest engagement in team sports (e.g., basketball and football) accounting for 47% of their activities. Dual sports (e.g., table tennis and badminton) followed closely at 43.5%, while individual sports were the least popular, with only 9.5% participation. All participants engaged in daily physical exercise. Nearly half (50%) exercised for less than an hour per day, while 42% dedicated 1 to 2 hrs daily to physical activities. Participants exhibited notably high levels of L2 grit (M = 3.10, SD = 0.89), L2 growth mindset (M = 3.36, SD = 0.90), and L2 willingness to communicate (L2 WTC; M = 3.07, SD = 0.94). However, their perceived L2 communication competence was relatively low (M = 2.42, SD = 1.17).

Table 3.

Type and Duration of Physical Exercise (N = 776).

Variable	Frequency	%	Cumulative %
Type
Individual sports	74	9.5	9.5
Dual sports	337	43.5	53.0
Team sports	365	47.0	100.0
Duration
<1 hr per day	384	49.5	49.5
1–2 hrs per day	326	42.0	91.5
2–3 hrs per day	45	5.8	97.3
>3 hrs per day	21	2.7	100.0

Correlation Analyses

Table 4 highlights the findings from Pearson’s correlation analysis, illustrating the relationships among various variables based on composite scores. Self-perceived communication competence showed strong positive correlations with L2 WTC (r = .49, p < .001) and L2 grit (r = .48, p < .001). It also revealed a moderately positive connection with a L2 growth mindset (r = .38, p < .001) and a weaker, yet significant, link with the frequency of physical exercise (r = .22, p < .001). However, no significant correlation was found between self-perceived communication competence and the type of physical exercise (p > .05).

Table 4.

Correlations Among Variables.

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Type of physical exercise	2.38	0.65	—
2. Frequency of physical exercise	1.62	0.72	.18*** [0.05, 0.30]	—
3. L2 grit	3.10	0.89	.10*** [−0.03, 0.23]	.19*** [0.06, 0.31]	—
4. L2 growth mindset	3.36	0.90	.14*** [0.01, 0.27]	.15*** [0.02, 0.28]	.74*** [0.66, 0.81]	—
5. L2 WTC	3.07	0.94	.11*** [−0.02, 0.24]	.17*** [0.04, 0.30]	.83*** [0.77, 0.88]	.67*** [0.58, 0.75]	—
6. SPCC	2.42	1.17	.04 [−0.09, 0.17]	.22*** [0.09, 0.35]	.48*** [0.36, 0.59]	.38*** [0.25, 0.50]	.49*** [0.37, 0.60]	—

Note. Correlations are Pearson’s r, with 95% confidence intervals in brackets; Correlations adjusted using Bonferroni correction for 10 tests (adjusted α = .005); all significant results held post-correction. No FDR applied as Bonferroni suffices for this matrix size. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation. SPCC = Self-Perceived Communication Competence.

***

p < .001.

Two-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA

A two-way mixed ANOVA was performed to investigate how physical exercise (both type and frequency) influences key variables: L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and perceived communication competence (see Table 5).

Table 5.

Fixed-Effects ANOVA Results.

Predictor	Criterion	Sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	p	Partial η_p²
Type of physical exercise	L2 grit	0.42	2	0.21	0.28	.76	.001
	Growth language mindset	1.18	2	0.59	0.77	.47	.002
	L2 WTC	1.70	2	0.85	1.03	.36	.003
	SPCC	0.55	2	0.28	0.21	.81	.001
Frequency of physical exercise	L2 grit	12.63	3	4.21	5.59	***	.021
	L2 growth mindset	10.36	3	3.45	4.48	**	.017
	L2 WTC	11.89	3	3.96	4.78	**	.018
	SPCC	27.72	3	9.24	7.09	***	.027

Note. SPCC = Self-Perceived Communication Competence.

p < .01. ***p < .001.

Regarding research question 1, the analysis revealed no significant main effect of exercise type on these variables (F(6,770) = 1.12, p = .35, ηp² = .01). This indicates that the type of physical exercise participants engaged in had no meaningful impact on their levels of L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, or perceived communication competence.

Regarding research question 2, the results highlighted a significant main effect of exercise frequency on all four variables: L2 grit (F(3,764) = 5.59, p < .001, ηp² = .021), L2 growth mindset (F(3,764) = 4.48, p = .004, ηp² = .017), L2 WTC (F(3,764) = 4.78, p = .003, ηp² = .018), and perceived communication competence (F(3,764) = 7.09, p < .001, ηp² = .027). These findings suggest that how often participants exercised significantly influenced their levels of L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, willingness to communicate, and perceived ability to use L2 effectively.

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) Analysis

To test our hypotheses (RQ2), we developed a structural equation model (SEM), incorporating correlated errors based on modification indices. The model’s fit was assessed using multiple indicators. As shown in Table 6, the chi-square divided by degrees of freedom (χ²/df) was below 3, demonstrating a strong model fit. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was ≤0.08, further confirming the model’s adequacy. Additionally, the adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) surpassed 0.85, indicating a satisfactory fit. Moreover, the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), normed fit index (NFI), and comparative fit index (CFI) all exceeded 0.9, providing robust evidence of the model’s overall fit (Hair et al., 1998).

Table 6.

A Summary of Goodness-of-Fit Indices of the SEM Model.

Overall model fit indices	χ²/df	RMSEA	AGFI	GFI	NFI	CFI
Model	2.21	0.07	0.87	0.91	0.92	0.97
Recommended value	<3	≤0.08	>0.85	>0.9	>0.9	>0.9

The five-factor SEM analysis (Figure 2) revealed compelling results. Physical exercise significantly influenced L2 grit (β = .082, p < .01), supporting Hypothesis 1. However, physical exercise did not significantly affect L2 growth mindset (p > .05), leading to the rejection of Hypothesis 2. On the other hand, L2 grit had a significant and positive impact on L2 growth mindset (β = .74, p < .01), supporting Hypothesis 3. Furthermore, both L2 grit (β = .84, p < .001) and L2 growth mindset (β = .10, p < .01) positively influenced L2 willingness to communicate (WTC), supporting Hypotheses 4 and 5. Lastly, L2 WTC significantly enhanced self-perceived communication competence (β = .53, p < .001), supporting Hypothesis 6.

Figure 2.

SEM among variables.

Discussion

Unlike earlier piecemeal testing studies that focused on self-perceived communication competence (e.g., Leeming et al., 2024), this research introduced and tested a comprehensive conceptual model. Our model explored how physical exercise (type and frequency), L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, and L2 WTC interact and relate to self-perceived communication competence.

For Research Question 1, the Two-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA analysis showed no significant effect of exercise type (individual, dual, team) on these variables. In other words, the kind of exercise participants engaged in did not meaningfully influence their levels of L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, or perceived communication competence. This finding contrasts with earlier studies (e.g., Campo et al., 2019; Pluhar et al., 2019), which found that different types of sports can lead to varying outcomes. For instance, team sports often encourage feelings of gratitude, peer support, and shared experiences, while individual sports, though typically more goal-focused, have been associated with higher levels of anxiety or depression. However, as those studies were conducted within the context of sports, the emotional and social benefits observed—such as the positive emotions and connections fostered by team sports—may not directly apply to L2 learning outcomes, such as L2 grit, mindset, or communication competence. Moreover, such psychological dependent variables are more closely associated with intensity and regularity (e.g., duration and frequency) than with the specific type of exercise, as sustained engagement may foster positive emotions and resource-building regardless of social or individual formats (Fredrickson, 2001; Orvidas et al., 2018).

Another possible explanation for the non-significant results could be that our study only considered exercise types without accounting for frequency (Colberg et al., 2016; Fernandes et al., 2024). For instance, students who frequently participated in individual sports (e.g., yoga, aerobics, martial arts) might show a greater impact on their L2 grit and L2 growth mindset compared to those who participated less often. Besides, our type taxonomy may be overly simplistic, lacking the ability to differentiate subtleties such as competitiveness (e.g., high-stakes vs. recreational), flow states (e.g., optimal challenge-skill balance), or social density (e.g., team cohesion vs. isolation), which could variably affect these traits (Campo et al., 2019; Pluhar et al., 2019)

Future research could explore this relationship further by examining a 2 × 2 matrix that combines exercise type and frequency, to better understand how these factors influence L2 learning outcomes.

Furthermore, For Research Question 2 & 3, the Two-Way Mixed ANOVA results revealed a significant main effect of exercise frequency on all four variables—L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and perceived communication competence. This indicates that how often participants exercised had a meaningful impact on these outcomes. Together with the findings from Research Question 1, this suggests that frequent physical exercise, regardless of type, is associated with higher levels of L2 grit, L2 growth mindset, L2 WTC, and communication competence.

To unpack these results further, a subsequent five-factor SEM analysis tested six hypotheses. Physical exercise was found to significantly enhance L2 grit, consistent with Hypothesis 1. This aligns with prior studies (e.g., Bae et al., 2024; Dunston et al., 2022; Klappa et al., 2020), which showed a positive association between physical activity and general grit. It further corroborates Deng and Legge (2022)’s finding that physical education helps foster good character and self-efficacy, which may subsequently enhance classroom learning. However, while earlier research focused on grit in general contexts, this study provides the first evidence of physical exercise improving language-specific L2 grit.

Physical exercise, however, did not significantly influence L2 growth mindset, leading to the rejection of Hypothesis 2. This suggests that physical activity on its own does not directly cultivate a L2 growth mindset. This finding contradicts with Rosenberg (2023), who found a positive connection between regular physical activity and the development of a growth mindset. A potential explanation lies in the educational backgrounds of the participants—first-year EFL students from a vocational college—who likely experienced a K-12 system centered on rote memorization and grammar-focused instruction. A study exploring demotivation and remotivation in Chinese students’ English learning (Ma, 2025) provides further insights into this phenomenon. This study found that students shaped by exam-oriented education tend to develop an “ought-to L2 self”—a self-concept driven by external standards (e.g., exam scores, parental expectations) rather than intrinsic motivation for language proficiency. Such an ought-to L2 self is closely associated with the formation of a fixed mindset, as learners internalize the belief that language ability is inherent rather than a product of effort, consistent with the fixed mindsets observed in our vocational college sample. They tend to prioritize job-specific practical skills over intellectual development (Lovat & Darmawan, 2019). Therefore, physical exercise alone may be insufficient to challenge or transform these deeply rooted fixed mindsets. Future studies could investigate this issue in other EFL groups, such as senior-year vocational students or first-year university students, to gain deeper insights into these patterns.

L2 grit had a significant positive effect on L2 growth mindset, supporting Hypothesis 3. This suggests that learners with greater determination and perseverance in learning English (L2 grit) are more likely to believe that they can improve their language skills through effort and practice (L2 growth mindset). This aligns with findings from Lam and Zhou’s (2025) meta-analysis, which highlighted a strong connection between grit and growth mindset. Combined with Hypothesis 1, the results imply that frequent physical exercise can cultivate L2 grit, which in turn supports the development of a L2 growth mindset in EFL learners.

L2 grit also had a significant positive effect on L2 WTC, supporting Hypothesis 4. This means that learners with higher grit are better equipped to overcome communication challenges, making them more willing to engage in conversations. While earlier studies (e.g., Alrabai, 2024; Lan et al., 2021; Lee, 2022) showed a connection between general grit and L2 WTC, this study highlights the specific influence of L2 grit. Notably, what sets this study apart is its measurement of L2 WTC in both face-to-face and online contexts. The findings offer the first evidence that L2 grit enhances learners’ willingness to communicate in diverse settings, including in-person conversations and digital platforms. This is particularly important as modern EFL learners increasingly use online environments to practice their language skills (Lee & Hsieh, 2019; Lee & Lee, 2020; Peng, 2025).

L2 growth mindset positively influenced L2 WTC, supporting Hypothesis 5. This suggests that when learners believe their language skills can improve through effort and view mistakes as learning opportunities, they become more willing to communicate. This finding aligns with earlier research connecting general growth mindset to L2 WTC (e.g., Lee & Taylor, 2024; Zhang & Yao, 2025) and studies on language-specific growth mindsets (e.g., Hejazi et al., 2023; Yin et al., 2025). While some studies (e.g., L. J. Zhang et al., 2024) reported no significant link between growth mindset and L2 WTC, this research adds new evidence that L2 growth mindset plays a pivotal role in enhancing communication willingness. Moreover, our study provides additional evidence demonstrating how psychological traits—L2 grit and L2 growth mindset—combine to strengthen learners’ willingness to communicate (Yu & Ma, 2024).

Lastly, L2 WTC significantly enhanced self-perceived communication competence, confirming Hypothesis 6. This supports MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) model, which positions L2 WTC as a key driver of actual language use and communication behaviors. It also aligns with studies suggesting that greater willingness to communicate leads to frequent language use, which improves fluency and bolsters self-confidence in communication (e.g., Balouchi & Samad, 2021; Leeming et al., 2024).

Overall, the confirmed model aligns with Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory. According to this theory, positive emotions expand cognitive flexibility and encourage exploratory behaviors, which, over time, help individuals develop skills and resilience. Applying this to our findings, EFL learners who exercise more frequently tend to develop greater determination and persistence in language learning (L2 grit). This grit then fosters the belief that they can improve through effort (L2 growth mindset). Together, L2 grit and L2 growth mindset enhance learners’ willingness to communicate in various contexts (the “broaden” effect), which eventually builds their communication confidence (the “build” effect).

Pedagogical Implications

The findings offer several implications for both language teachers and policymakers, highlighting the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to promote comprehensive L2 development among EFL learners.

First, teachers are encouraged to include regular physical activities into their teaching practices. This aligns with China’s recent “Double Reduction” policy which emphasizes the importance of physical exercise in school curricula (Liu et al., 2023). This could help L2 learners develop L2 grit and a growth mindset, which are essential for improving their willingness to communicate and boosting their confidence in using the language in real-life situations. Second, given the cognitive and psychological benefits of exercise, particularly based on Chang et al.’s (2025) meta-review, teachers might consider incorporate brief pre-task physical interventions (e.g., 20–30 min of moderate-intensity exercise) prior to L2 speaking activities. These treatments can enhance learners’ cognitive flexibility and tendency for risk-taking (Chang et al., 2025), hence reducing affective barriers to L2 communication and increasing task engagement. Third, the non-significant effect of exercise type indicates adaptability in engagement. Therefore, teachers can design individual, dual, or team exercises according to contextual constraints (e.g., classroom size, available resources). Regular exercise is crucial, as it directly correlates with enhanced L2 grit, which is a fundamental trait for persevering in language learning despite obstacles. Fourth, policymakers should make it clear that language programs could have advisory integration with existing PE courses, guaranteeing that exercise is not compromised for exam-focused education. Finally, policymakers should support curricula that promote both language proficiency and psychological resilience in students, based on the psycho-physical-linguistic link identified in this study. This comprehensive approach is essential for equipping EFL learners with the communication competence and adaptive skills necessary for intricate, real-world situations.

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

This study has three main limitations, which provide valuable directions for future research. First, the reliance on self-reported data presents a potential bias, as participants may overestimate or underestimate their behaviors and attitudes. Future studies could address this limitation by employing a triangulation of data through qualitative methods (e.g., interviews) and objective measures (e.g., tracking apps) to monitor physical activities more accurately. Second, the study focused exclusively on first-year EFL students from a single vocational college in one region, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Future research should include participants from various academic years, different universities, and diverse regions or countries. This would yield a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between physical exercise, psychological traits, and L2 outcomes across different educational and cultural contexts. Lastly, while this study was groundbreaking because it included physical exercise in SLA research, it only scratched the surface of how non-SLA variables can contribute to language learning. Future research may investigate other interdisciplinary factors, including those from positive psychology and physical sports, to uncover novel insights. Moreover, future research might incorporate micro-experiments or classroom randomized controlled trials (e.g., “20-min pre-class activity” as a treatment), utilizing wearables for objective activity data, and multilevel models to account for class and teacher clustering. These efforts could expand the scope of SLA research and encourage innovative, cross-disciplinary approaches to address language education challenges in an increasingly complex and rapidly evolving world.

Conclusion

This interdisciplinary study highlights the essential function of physical exercise in influencing L2 grit, which, in turn, facilitates the development of a L2 growth mindset in EFL learners. These two psychological traits—L2 grit and growth mindset—work synergistically to enhance learners’ willingness to communicate, thereby improving their self-perceived communication competence. This holistic perspective aligns with the ecological systems framework, emphasizing the necessity to create optimal environments that promote learners’ linguistic, physical, and psychological development (Peng, 2012, 2025). To truly empower EFL learners, it is insufficient to focus solely on boosting linguistic input and output. Instead, research should explore innovative approaches to cultivate environments in which learners can thrive across multiple dimensions. These findings provide valuable insights for pedagogy, research, and policy, encouraging interdisciplinary studies that address the challenges of language education in an increasingly complex era.

Footnotes

Appendix A

Table A.

The Table of Construct Validity and Internal Reliability for All Items.

Construct	Item	Sample (N = 776)
Construct	Item	Loading (>0.5)	α (>.8)	CR (>0.8)	AVE (>0.5)
Grit	GRIT 1	0.87	.98	0.97	0.57
	GRIT 2	0.82
	GRIT 3	0.89
	GRIT 4	0.91
	GRIT 5	0.83
	GRIT 6	0.90
	GRIT 7	0.92
	GRIT 8	0.92
	GRIT 9	0.91
	GRIT 10	0.89
	GRIT 11	0.89
Growth mindset	GM 1	0.91	.98	0.98	0.86
	GM 2	0.92
	GM 3	0.93
	GM 4	0.93
	GM 5	0.93
	GM 6	0.92
	GM 7	0.93
	GM 8	0.93
L2 WTC	WTC 1	0.86	.98	0.96	0.63
	WTC 2	0.86
	WTC 3	0.87
	WTC 4	0.89
	WTC 5	0.85
	WTC 6	0.87
	WTC 7	0.91
	WTC 8	0.90
	WTC 9	0.88
	WTC 10	0.86
	WTC 11	0.91
	WTC 12	0.88
	WTC 13	0.87
	WTC 14	0.85
Perceived L2 use	PL2U 1	0.82	.97	0.96	0.69
	PL2U 2	0.82
	PL2U 3	0.88
	PL2U 4	0.85
	PL2U 5	0.87
	PL2U 6	0.90
	PL2U 7	0.86
	PL2U 8	0.90
	PL2U 9	0.89
	PL2U 10	0.85
	PL2U 11	0.88
	PL2U 12	0.89

ORCID iDs

Linlin Liu

Ju Seong Lee

Ethical Considerations

This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at Yibin Vocational and Technical College (approval no. YBZY2024-25) on May 18, 2024.

Consent to Participate

Respondents gave written consent for review and signature before starting the survey.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was supported by the 2024 Yibin Vocational and Technical College Teaching Quality and Reform Project titled “Pathways to Enhancing Digital Literacy Among Higher Vocational Foreign Language Teachers: A Broaden-and-Build Theory Perspective” [YBZYJG2025-25]. It was also supported by the special project for Foreign Language Education Reform in Vocational Colleges 2025 from the Foreign Language Committee of China Vocational and Technical Education Society, titled “Innovation and Practice of Digital Technology-Enabled English Teaching Models in Higher Vocational Colleges” [WYW2025B38].

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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