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Abstract

Due to the demographic growth of older population segments, psychological research is increasingly devoted to the determinants of good aging. There is strong evidence that positive self-perceptions of aging (SPA) have a beneficial influence on health, well-being, and longevity. However, there is also the need to determine the potential predictors of SPA. The current study examines the relationship between SPA and their psychopolitical and psychosocial predictors among older people. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time psychopolitical variables are investigated in the context of SPA. We examine four potential predictors of SPA, which are personal characteristics associated with (a) perception of own political participation (i.e., political subjectivity and political agency), (b) perception of being autonomous and having a sense of control over one’s own life (i.e., autonomy in old age), and (c) perception of being loved and supported by others (i.e., social support). Four hundred fifty-five participants aged 65 to 95 participated in the study. Adopting Neugarten’s approach, we compare the results of two groups of older people: the Young-Old (Y-O), aged 65 to 74, and the Old-Old (O-O), aged 75 to 95. The Y-O group was higher than the O-O group on SPA and political agency. SPA were positively associated with political subjectivity and autonomy in old age in both groups.

Keywords

aging self-perception of aging Young-Old Old-Old

Introduction

Population ageing confronts the affected societies with a multitude of unprecedented challenges. Apart from the economic, social, and public health issues associated with population aging, other problems that arise are related to the quality of life of older people, as well as good and healthy aging. Researchers interested in this theme use similar and complementary concepts, such as “productive,”“successful,”“active,”“optimal,”“positive,” and “healthy” aging (Pocock et al., 2023). In the current study, the term “successful aging” (SA) is used to investigate relationships between self-perception of aging and its potential psychopolitical and psychosocial predictors.

SA, in the classic approach by Rowe and Kahn, consists of three components: “low probability of disease and disease-related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active engagement in life” (Rowe & Kahn, 1997, p. 433). SA can be viewed as a multidimensional concept involving biomedical aspects (i.e., physical and mental health, physical and cognitive functioning), but also psychosocial factors, such as psychological adaptation, active engagement in life, and well-being (Urtamo et al., 2019). The concept can be examined using objective criteria (e.g., physical or mental health) or by referring to a subjective assessment of an individual (e.g., self-perception of aging; SPA) (Hung et al., 2010). The former approach assumes that the researchers decide who ages well. The latter is based on the opinions of older persons themselves on whether they are aging well (Teater & Chonody, 2020). In the current study, the subjective perspective on aging is applied.

Although SPA, understood as beliefs and expectations of an older person about their aging (Diehl et al., 2021), may not necessarily be consistent with the objective assessment of SA, there is extensive evidence that they have a beneficial influence on physical and mental health, well-being, and longevity (B. R. Levy et al., 2002). SPA correlated with many positive psychological adjustment indicators, such as resilience, activity, the number of close friends (Montross et al., 2006), less depression (Han & Richardson, 2015), and better cognitive functioning (Siebert et al., 2018). Strong evidence about the benefits of positive SPA encourages research on its potential predictors and determinants. Even if SPA is treated as the effect of the internalization of age-related stereotypes at earlier stages of life (B. Levy, 2009), change is still possible at any age. For example, Tully-Wilson et al. (2021) put forward several health strategies, including direct interventions, that can promote positive SPA. So far, despite the importance of the topic, there are few empirical studies on the predictors of SPA. It was positively associated with resilience (Martin et al., 2015), optimism (Martin et al., 2015; Turner & Hooker, 2022), self-efficacy of possible selves (Turner & Hooker, 2022), or agency and communion (Blawert et al., 2022). The present study aims to provide a further test of the robustness of these preliminary findings.

The available research shows quite consistently that civic participation is associated with SPA (Douglas et al., 2017). In our study, we focus on the critical domain of civic engagement in political dimension. The literature demonstrates a positive impact of political participation on people’s subjective well-being, which suggests that older people’s SPA is also boosted by greater political involvement. As stated by Serrat et al. (2018, p. 55), “Political participation provides older people with the potential to express agency and achieve integration for themselves.”

Research by Jopp et al. (2015) shows the need to verify classic models of SA. Explorations of laypersons’ views of SA pose scientific challenges because they include a much wider variety of factors compared to those considered in most theoretical models. The authors’ research clearly showed that good social functioning is often determined as an essential factor in SA, especially by older adults themselves. It reflects a wish to retain a role in society and be involved with people. Hence, our attention focused on psychopolitical factors treated marginally in the literature.

As mentioned, there is a lack of research on the importance of political factors in the context of SPA. These factors refer to campaigning strategies tailored to mobilize the older voter segment (Rozario & Pizzo, 2022), the political behaviors of so-called gray voters, including in particular their voting habits (Goerres, 2007), as well as the interests of gray voters visible in their political preferences (Chrisp & Pearce, 2019). These influences, therefore, function as objective variables that describe the context of analyses. Our study treats psychopolitical factors as the potential predictors of SPA, seeking traits in them that strengthen the psychological potential of older people. In the current study, two politics-related concepts are used to examine the relationship between political engagement and SPA: political agency and political subjectivity.

Old age is often divided into two phases in aging research: the “Third Age”– when people are usually active and independent, and the “Fourth Age,” which is the last stage of life (and is typically characterized by multimorbidity, functional loss, cognitive decline, motor and sensory impairment, and frailty) (e.g., Wahl & Ehni, 2020). These groups of older adults, referred to as Young-Old (Y-O) and Old-Old (O-O), are also distinguished in research on good aging (e.g., Chan et al., 2019). We use Neugarten’s (1974) approach and adopt the age of 75 as the boundary between the Y-O and O-O groups. Recently, researchers have been paying more attention than before to the 75+ age group, noticing its specificity in the context of SPA (Badache et al., 2023; Martin et al., 2015). Still, the number of empirical studies on these issues is very limited, especially those that aim at comparing Y-O and O-O groups. The current study intends to fill this gap. Thus, the groups of Y-O and O-O adults are distinguished in order to identify the potential differences associated with SPA.

Current Study

The aim of the study is to investigate the set of potential psychopolitical and psychosocial predictors of SPA and their relationships with SPA in two age groups of older people (the Y-O and O-O) (e.g., Neugarten, 1974; Wahl & Ehni, 2020). The following questions are posed: (1) Are there differences between the Y-O and O-O groups in terms of SPA and its potential predictors? (2) Are there differences between the Y-O and O-O groups in terms of the patterns of bivariate relationships between SPA and its potential predictors? (3) What is incremental validity of the psychopolitical and psychosocial predictors above the health-related and sociodemographic predictors on SPA in the Y-O and O-O groups?

Informed by the literature, we select individual differences in political subjectivity and political agency as one set of potential predictors of SPA. The predictors are connected by the concept of political participation. Political subjectivity results from an individual’s self-construction, carried out through participation and interaction with the political system. It emerges as a consequence of a process of negotiation (McDonald, 1999), and critical and conscious reflection makes it possible to manage one’s place with reference to the individual’s needs. It, therefore, represents one’s conscious embedding in the context of political functioning. An individual’s political subjectivity is based on the experience of their functioning within the political system, and it is expressed in their beliefs and attitudes towards that system and in their role as part of it. In our opinion, the essence of political subjectivity is the awareness of one’s place in the political system, which does not require mobility or genuine “self-motion” (Sartori, 1987, p. 142).

Agency is the “socially constituted capacity to act” (Barker, 2003, p. 234). In the context of political agency, discussions arise over the classification of habitual behaviors and of those resulting from unconscious obedience to institutional rules (Czesnik et al., 2013). Within the framework of the approach presented here, we assume that political agency includes intentionality, that is, the active and conscious attitude of the agent towards the activity itself and its direction. Political agency therefore implies conscious interaction with the links in the political system. It results from the individual’s sense that they can pursue their goals as citizens, and that their needs can be effectively met through political behaviors.

Political agency is a function not only of wants and needs but also involves the need to have the resources to physically participate. Despite many studies showing the positive consequences of political participation for older people, other research has appeared suggesting that it is not always a win-win activity (Serrat et al., 2021) and that barriers to engagement may increase with age, often associated with deteriorating health and reduced mobility. On this basis, we predict that the Y-O group will be higher than the O-O group on political agency (Hypothesis 1a).

Social support can be defined as “information leading the subject to believe that he is cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual obligations” (Cobb, 1976, p. 300). In this study, a subjective assessment of available support (instrumental, informational, and emotional) was obtained from the participants. Adequate social support becomes more and more important as people age because of a decline in health and an increasing difficulty in performing activities of daily life. This situation is more likely to occur in the older group of aging people. Thus, we predict that the O-O group will be higher than the Y-O group on social support (Hypothesis 1b).

We do not predict differences between Y-O and O-O in terms of political subjectivity. Political subjectivity refers to the collection of feelings, attitudes, emotions, and beliefs which are shaped as a consequence of the individual’s perceived place in the broadly understood political system (Turska-Kawa, 2023). Thus, it does not require additional resources, such as good health, physical fitness, or mobility, to develop or consolidate. Age should therefore not be a barrier.

So far, no empirical relationships have been sought between the psychopolitical variables indicated above and SPA. However, the literature includes studies showing the positive consequences of political participation of older people (Blanche-Tarragó & Fernández-Ardèvol, 2022; Hsu, 2007), making it possible to predict a relationship between political agency and political subjectivity on the one hand and SPA on the other hand. Both political subjectivity (through one’s own beliefs, feelings, and attitudes) and political agency (through one’s own genuine activity) give the individual a sense of inclusion, of being part of the political system. Bearing in mind that the opportunities for the realization of social inclusion naturally decline with age, the positive consequences of higher levels of political subjectivity and political agency (e.g., a sense of belonging to a group, satisfaction with the activity undertaken, a sense of self-fulfillment in a social role) may be linked to SPA. On this basis, we predict that SPA will be positively associated with political agency and political subjectivity in both age groups (Hypotheses 2a and 2b).

Perceived autonomy and social support were chosen as the potential psychosocial predictors of SPA. Together, they represent important and interrelated personal (i.e., a sense of autonomy) and social (i.e., available social support) resources of an individual. Autonomy, one of the most important human needs, defined by Ryan and Deci (2006) as the experience of choice, is associated with many positive outcomes, such as satisfaction with life and well-being (Reis et al., 2000). Research has shown that older people consider autonomy to be an essential criterion of SA (Badache et al., 2023). In our study, autonomy is defined as a subjective evaluation of independence and freedom of choice (Warner et al., 2011). In old age, many factors (such as age-related impairments, multimorbidity, and other factors that lead to functional decline) can severely threaten autonomy (Sibley et al., 2006). However, according to the Ryan and Deci definition quoted above, if older people have a choice of actions, they can feel autonomous, even if they have to rely on the help of others (Warner et al., 2011). Therefore, we do not anticipate differences between the Y-O and O-O groups on autonomy. At the same time, we put forward a hypothesis about a positive correlation between SPA and autonomy in both age groups (Hypothesis 2c).

As stated above in this section, social support becomes more important in old age, thus we hypothesize that SPA will be positively associated with social support in both age groups (Hypothesis 2d).

Health and sociodemographic covariates of SPA are included in this study. Physical and mental health are considered primary determinants of objective SA and SPA (Warmoth et al., 2016). In the current study, two health-related variables (self-perceived health and depression) are measured. The relationships between SPA and these variables will serve as a frame of reference in the analyses of the associations between SPA and their predictors (i.e., psychopolitical and psychosocial variables). Also, sociodemographic factors, such as sex, financial and marital status, education, and employment are taken into account because these variables were often associated with SPA in previous studies (Martin et al., 2015).

Method

Participants and Procedure

Four hundred and fifty-five participants aged 65 to 95 (M = 72.8, SD = 6.43), 284 women (62.4%) and 171 men (37.6%) took part in the study. Eleven percent of the participants (n = 52) had completed primary education, 23% (n = 103) had vocational training, 36% (n = 165) had secondary education and 30% (n = 135) had higher education. A minority of the participants (13.8%, n = 63) were employed at the time of the study, 60% (n = 268) were married, and 40% (n = 187) were single (among them 7.7% divorced and 29.7% widowed). A minority of the participants (29.2%, n = 133) lived in a one-person household, 50.5% (n = 230) lived with their spouse or family member, and 20.3% (n = 92) lived with more than one family member. Two separate subgroups of respondents were identified following an age criterion: Y-O (age <75; n = 148) and O-O (age 75+; n = 307) (see Neugarten, 1974).

The research was conducted between 15 November and 30 December 2022 using the CAPI (Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing) method. The sample was random, taking into account the territorial division of Poland (16 provinces). A Poland-wide sample of people aged 65 and over (N = 2,082) was drawn from the PESEL register (PESEL is the national identification number used in Poland). Three attempts were made to contact each of the individuals drawn and to obtain their consent to an interview (between 18 September and 14 October 2022). Ultimately, the full survey was conducted on 455 people, which corresponds to a response rate of 21.85%. The recorded refusals show that the main reasons included poor health, a socially passive attitude (lack of interest in social issues, focusing only on family, personal matters), and lack of trust.

The research was conducted by a team of trained interviewers. They were selected in a Poland-wide competition among junior research workers at universities and PhD candidates from doctoral schools working in the field of social sciences. For each province of Poland, two to three interviewers were selected. They received training to maximize the reliability of the survey results, as well as the psychological comfort of the respondents. During a series of training sessions, the interviewers practiced the exact interview scenario under the guidance of experts, as well as gained an understanding of potential psychological difficulties when dealing with older people. The data obtained during the interview was collected directly in the STATSO software, which could only be accessed by the project manager. At the start of the survey, the respondents were assured of the confidentiality of their responses, as well as of the protection of their data. After obtaining all the information, they gave written consent to participate in the study in the presence of the interviewer (signing the declaration of consent form).

The dataset for the current study is freely available on the OSF repository https://osf.io/9n8ry/?view_only=2fa219ac3ee0407c909803974409edc8.

Measures

SPA were measured with the Attitude Toward Own Aging (ATOA) subscale from the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale (PGCMS) (Lawton, 1975), which is the most frequently used tool for measuring self-directed aging stereotype (Burton et al., 2021). It consists of four questions with the answers “yes” scored as 1 and “no” scored as 0 (“Things keep getting worse as I get older” reverse scored, “I have as much pep as I did last year,”“As you get older, you are less useful” reverse scored, “I am as happy now as I was when I was younger”) and one additional question (“As I get older, things are (‘better’ scored 1, ‘the same’ scored 1, ‘worse’ scored 0) as I thought they would be”). The scores can range from 0 to 5, higher scores indicate more favorable ratings. Reliability of the scale in the current study was good (Cronbach’s α = .70).

Political agency was measured using a tool developed for this research, based on a classic question about the declarative intentions to participate (Durand et al., 2004). The respondents were asked to estimate the likelihood of attending each of the eight political events listed, if they took place on the following day. Willingness to participate in the following was measured: (1) presidential elections, (2) parliamentary elections, (3) local elections, (4) European Parliament elections, (5) referendum on a question important to the participant, (6) civic budget vote, (7) meeting with a politician, (8) protest/demonstration concerning an important issue. The participants answered using a five-point scale (1 = “definitely not”, 5 = “definitely yes”). The catalogue of political activities included both elections and non-electoral events. Some researchers argue that electoral behaviors can be determined externally or habitually (e.g., Cravens, 2020; Czesnik et al., 2013). We assume that participation in the second group of political events is, to a large extent, an expression of an active, conscious desire to join the political system. The scores were averaged, with higher scores indicating higher political agency. Reliability of the scale in the current study was good (α = .85).

Political subjectivity was measured with two items selected from the Political Subjectivity Scale (Turska-Kawa, 2023). An original scale consists of three factors, confirmed by an explanatory factor analysis: identification with the political system, political initiative, and political sense. In the current study we used the items from factor 1, which can be regarded the main component of political subjectivity. Political subjectivity conceptualized as the awareness of one’s place in the political system fills the entire factor 1 of the original scale (i.e., identification with the political system). This factor included citizens’ feelings concerning their place within the political system, their sense of importance and their awareness of the significance of their civil rights and was measured with two items: “I feel important as a citizen,”“Regardless of the reshuffling of the political scene after the elections, I know that there is a place for me as a citizen.” The participants were asked to respond on a five-point scale (1 = “strongly disagree”; 5 = “strongly agree”). Reliability of the scale in the current study was good (α = .73).

Self-perceived health was measured with a self-anchoring pictorial scale. We prepared the scale on the basis of the Cantril Self-Anchoring Ladder. The Cantril Ladder is widely used in psychological research. A self-anchoring scales requires the participants to describe anchoring points “in terms of their own perceptions, goals and values” (Kilpatrick & Cantril, 1960, p. 158). The scale used in our study had a form of a ladder with 10 numbered rungs, where the lowest rung represented the worst possible health and the highest rung represented the best possible health. Participants were asked the question “On which step of the ladder, according to your personal feeling, would you place your current health?” The scores can range from 1 to 10, higher scores indicate better self-perceived health.

Depression was assessed with the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2) (Kroenke et al., 2003), a short screening method, the validity of which had been confirmed in older groups of people. The scale consists of two items. The participants answered the following question: “Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems: (a) little interest or pleasure in doing things, (b) feeling down, depressed, or hopeless” with the answers “not at all” = 0, “several days” = 1, “more than half the days” = 2, “nearly every day” = 3 (Kroenke et al., 2003, p. 1285). The scores can range from 0 to 4, higher scores show higher levels of depression. Reliability of the scale in the current study was good (α = .75).

Autonomy was measured with three items from the Perceived Autonomy in Old Age (PAA) scale (Schwarzer, 2008): “I live by my own choices now that I am old”; “I make my own decisions and I don’t need others to protect me”; “I organize my life according to my own ideas”). The participants answered using a four-point scale (1 = “definitely not true,” 4 = “definitely true”). The scale measures subjective assessments of independence and freedom of choices. The items were averaged, with higher scores indicating higher autonomy. Reliability of the scale in the current study was good (α = .74).

Social support was measured with four questions previously used in a study testing the new model of active aging (Marsillas et al., 2017) (“To what extent do you count on people who care about what happens to you?”; “To what extent do you have the chance to talk to someone about your personal/family problems?”; “To what extent do you receive help when you are ill in bed?”; “To what extent do you feel that your family loves you?”). The participants answered on a four-point scale (1 = “not at all,” 4 = “to a large extent”). The scores were averaged, with higher scores indicating higher perceived social support. Reliability of the scale in the current study was acceptable (α = .67).

Sociodemographic Variables

Financial status was assessed with a one-item subjective measure. The participants answered a question about their financial situation using a 5-point scale (1 = “very poor – not enough to satisfy basic needs,” 5 = “very good – able to afford a comfortable life”). This scale was used in many published studies (e.g., Górnik-Durose & Pilch, 2016). Marital status, employment and education were analyzed as dichotomous variables (marital: 1 = “not married,” 2 = “married”; employment: 1 = “not employed,” 2 = “employed”; education: 1 = “less than higher,” 2 = “higher”).

Statistical Analyses

Differences between the O-O (n = 148) and Y-O (n = 307) groups were tested with the chi-square test (nominal variables), the Mann-Whitney test (ordinal variables), or Welch’s t-test for independent groups and unequal sample sizes (continuous variables with approximately normal distribution). The Holm-Bonferroni correction was applied to adjust for multiple comparisons. Hedges’g (which is appropriate when sample sizes are unequal) was calculated to obtain the effect size for the t-test. Bivariate relationships between SPA and other variables were tested using Pearson’s correlation for continuous variables with approximately normal distribution, Spearman’s correlation for ordinal variables, and Welch’s t-test for independent groups and unequal sample sizes for nominal (dichotomous) variables, separately for the Y-O and O-O groups. To assess incremental validity of the psychopolitical and psychosocial variables above the health-related and sociodemographic variables, hierarchical regression analysis was applied. Two regression analyses with SPA as an outcome variable and the selected variables as predictors were performed separately for the Y-O and O-O groups. Only the variables that correlated with SPA in our previous analysis were used. The predictors were standardized before the analysis. The health-related and sociodemographic variables were entered simultaneously into the regression in Step 1, followed by autonomy in Step 2, and political subjectivity in Step 3. All VIF’s were <1.5 and tolerance was <1, what means that multicollinearity of the predictors was not a problem in these analyses.

Results

Differences Between the Y-O and O-O Groups

Means and standard deviations, differences between the groups for the study variables and Hedges’g values are presented in Table 1. The Y-O group was significantly higher than the O-O group on SPA, political agency (which is in line with Hypothesis 1a), and perceived health. The O-O group was higher than the Y-O group on depression, but after applying the Holm-Bonferroni correction, this result lost significance. There were no differences in perceived autonomy, social support (which is inconsistent with Hypothesis 1b), and political subjectivity.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Group Comparisons.

Variable	Young-Oldn = 307		Old-Oldn = 148		Differences between groups
	M	SD	M	SD	t-test^a			CI of the difference		Hedges’g
	M	SD	M	SD	t	p-Value	p-Value^b	Lower	Upper	Hedges’g
SPA	3.20	1.53	2.20	1.64	6.14	<.001	.001	0.68	1.32	0.64
Political agency	4.21	0.77	3.91	0.95	3.31	.001	.009	0.12	0.47	0.36
Political subjectivity	3.65	1.04	3.82	1.05	−1.58	.114	.684	−0.37	0.04	0.16
Autonomy	3.41	0.60	3.36	0.64	0.71	.478	1.000	−0.08	0.17	0.08
Social support	3.78	0.35	3.76	0.37	0.35	.729	1.000	−0.06	0.08	0.06
Perceived health	6.42	1.79	5.57	1.82	4.65	<.001	.001	0.49	1.20	0.47
Depression	1.39	0.65	1.58	0.73	−2.72	.007	.056	−0.33	−0.05	0.28

Note. CI = 95% confidence intervals.

Welch’s t-test for independent groups and unequal sample sizes (two-tailed).

Adjusted p-value after Holm-Bonferroni sequential correction.

In relation to sociodemographic variables, there were significant differences between the groups in terms of marital status (χ² = 28.34, p < .001), employment (χ² = 13.10, p < .001) and financial status (U = 20,020.00, p = .03). There were more married and employed persons in the Y-O group compared to the O-O group and the Y-O group declared a better material situation than the other group. However, after applying the Holm-Bonferroni correction, the latter result lost significance. There were no differences between the groups in sex (χ² = .56, p = .45) and education level (χ² = .00, p = .98).

Relationships Between SPA and Other Variables in the Y-O and O-O Groups

Correlations between SPA and the remaining variables in two groups of participants are presented in Table 2. In regard to psychopolitical variables, SPA was associated positively with political subjectivity in both groups, which is in line with Hypothesis 2b. There were no associations between SPA and political agency, which does not support Hypothesis 1a. In regard to psychosocial variables, SPA correlated with autonomy in both age groups (the difference between coefficients: z = −1.098, p = .27), which supports Hypothesis 2c. There were no associations between SPA and social support in any group, which is inconsistent with Hypothesis 2d. In relation to health variables, SPA was associated positively with perceived health and negatively with depression in both groups.

Table 2.

Correlations Between SPA and Study Variables in Y-O and O-O Groups.

Variables	Young-Oldr (CI)	Old-Oldr (CI)
SPA – Perceived health	.45 (0.35; 0.53)	.46 (0.32; 0.58)
SPA – Depression	−.30 (−0.40; −0.19)	−.35 (−0.48; −0.20)
SPA – Financial status	.29 (0.17; 0.38)	.31 (0.14; 0.45)
SPA – Political agency	.06 (−0.05; 0.18)	.12 (−0.05; 0.27)
SPA – Political subjectivity	.20 (0.08; 0.30)	.19 (0.03; 0.34)
SPA – Autonomy	.26 (0.15; 0.36)	.36 (0.21; 0.49)
SPA – Social support	.09 (−0.02; 0.21)	.14 (−0.03; 0.29)

Note. Intervals that not include zero indicate that the coefficient is significant at p < .05. CI = 95% confidence intervals (two-tailed).

In relation to sociodemographic variables, in both age groups there were no relationships between SPA and marital status (not married-married; Y-O t = −0.70, p = .49; O-O t = −0.40, p = .35) and SPA and sex (female-male; Y-O t = 0.39, p = .70; O-O t = 0.24, p = .81). The association between SPA and employment (not employed-employed) was significant only in the Y-O group (Y-O t = −2.56, p = .006; O-O t = −1.20, p = .27). The employed participants from the Y-O group reported higher levels of SPA than the non-employed ones. Also, the associations between SPA and education level (secondary or college – higher education) was significant only in the Y-O group (Y-O t = −2.59, p = .01; O-O t = −44, p = .15). The group with higher education reported higher SPA than the other group. In both age groups, SPA also correlated with financial status.

Prediction of SPA in the Y-O and O-O Groups

Hierarchical regression analyses performed in two groups of participants are presented in Table 3. The variables that correlated with SPA in our previous analysis were entered into the regression equation. Political subjectivity represented the psychopolitical group of predictors, whereas perceived autonomy represented the psychosocial group of predictors. Firstly, the analysis was done for the Y-O group. When health-related and sociodemographic variables were entered into the regression in Step 1, the model was significant (F(5,288) = 23.93, p < .001) and explained 29.4% of the SPA variance. Perceived health, depression, and financial status emerged as significant predictors of SPA. When autonomy was added in Step 2, the model explained 31% of the SPA variance (ΔR² = .016, p = .01), and autonomy was its significant predictor. When political subjectivity was added in Step 3, the model explained 33.9% of the SPA variance (ΔR² = .029, p < .001), and political subjectivity was its significant predictor. Thus, both autonomy and political subjectivity had incremental validity above health-related and sociodemographic variables in the Y-O group.

Table 3.

Results of Hierarchical Regression With Health-Related Variables, Sociodemographic Variables, Autonomy, and Psychopolitical Variables Predicting Together SPA in the Y-O and O-O Groups.

Predictors	Step 1				Step 2				Step 3
Predictors	B	SE	β	p	B	SE	β	p	B	SE	β	p
Young-Old (N = 307)
Perceived health	0.57	0.08	.37	<.001	0.53	0.08	.34	<.001	0.50	0.08	.33	<.001
Depression	−0.32	0.08	−.21	<.001	−0.31	0.08	−.20	<.001	−0.31	0.08	−.20	<.001
Financial status	0.23	0.08	.15	.006	0.21	0.08	.14	.010	0.18	0.08	.12	.027
Employment	0.13	0.07	.10	.066	0.12	0.07	.09	.082	0.13	0.07	.09	.063
Education	0.07	0.08	.05	.388	0.09	0.08	.06	.292	0.15	0.08	.10	.066
Autonomy					0.20	0.08	.13	.010	0.21	0.08	.14	.007
Political subjectivity									0.27	0.08	.18	<.001
R²/ΔR²	.294/–				.310/.016*				.339/.029***
Old-Old (N = 148)
Perceived health	0.65	0.12	.40	<.001	0.53	0.12	.32	<.001	0.54	0.12	.33	<.001
Depression	−0.47	0.12	−.29	<.001	−0.47	0.11	−.29	<.001	−0.48	0.12	−.29	<.001
Financial status	0.24	0.12	.14	.052	0.26	0.12	.16	.027	0.26	0.12	.16	.027
Employment	0.16	0.17	.06	.363	0.09	0.17	.03	.608	0.09	0.17	.03	.609
Education	−0.05	0.12	−.03	.652	−0.10	0.11	−.06	.395	−0.10	0.12	−.06	.385
Autonomy					0.39	0.12	.24	.001	0.40	0.11	.25	.001
Political subjectivity									−0.04	0.12	−.02	.734
R²/ΔR²	.329/–				.380/.050**				.381/.001

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Secondly, the analysis was done for the O-O group. When control variables were entered in Step 1, the model was significant (F(5,140) = 13.75, p < .001) and explained 32.9% of the SPA variance. Perceived health and depression emerged as significant predictors of SPA. When autonomy was added in Step 2, the model explained 38% of the SPA variance (ΔR² = .05, p = .001), and autonomy was its significant predictor. When political subjectivity was added in Step 3, the model explained 38.1% of the SPA variance, the R-Squared change was non-significant, and political subjectivity was not a significant predictor of SPA. Thus, in the O-O group only autonomy demonstrated incremental validity above health-related and sociodemographic variables.

Discussion

Three research questions were asked in this study. In response to research question one, regarding differences between the age groups, we found significant differences between the Y-O and O-O groups on SPA and one of their psychopolitical predictors, namely political agency. The Y-O group had higher levels of these variables compared to the O-O group. In turn, there were no group differences on the remaining psychopolitical and psychosocial variables. Thus, the data supported Hypothesis 1a (relating to political agency) but they did not support Hypothesis 1b (relating to social support).

We did not formulate a hypothesis regarding group differences in SPA because the results of studies on trajectories of SPA in old age are inconclusive. Age-related decline in SPA was reported by several previous studies (e.g., Diehl et al., 2021). In turn, Martin et al. (2015) obtained higher SPA in the O-O group compared to the Y-O group. Earlier, Jeste et al. (2013) presented this result obtained on the same sample. However, this result could reflect the wider age range of participants in the Y-O group (50–74) or the specificity of measurement of SPA (a composite of three different measures) in this research. According to our results, the Y-O group was higher on SPA than the O-O group. This finding is congruent with many studies and can reflect the objective differences in the life situation of the “Third Age” and “Fourth Age” persons.

As expected, higher levels of political agency were observed in the Y-O group. Political agency involves the need for resources that enable political behavior, expressed through physical participation in events of a political nature. Deteriorating bodily functions can significantly block the expression of political agency both in the objective area (e.g., mobility difficulties, health problems) (Pantelaki et al., 2021) and in the subjective area (e.g., decreased motivation related to the weakening of the organism) (Serrat & Villar, 2016). Similarly, as expected, belonging to a particular age group did not differentiate the levels of political subjectivity. It appears to be independent of physical fitness or health. It is based more on emotions, on beliefs that can be maintained or developed regardless of age.

We did not anticipate group differences in autonomy. Indeed, the Y-O group and the O-O group had similar scores on the scale of autonomy in old age. Thus, according to our results, the need for autonomy can be relatively constant as people age. This result is in line with the claims of the theory by Ryan and Deci (2006). However, it is not consistent with Neubauer et al. (2017) who suggest that in the case of very old persons the need for autonomy can weaken and it becomes less important than the need for competence. The difference between the results of the current study and Neubauer et al. (2017) can be attributed to the differences in age of the participants (75–96 vs. 87–97).

The deterioration of health and functioning and numerous economic, social and psychological losses, typical of the “Fourth Age,” could also increase the need for social support, especially of the instrumental kind. In our study, the lack of differences between the Y-O and O-O groups on perceived social support could be attributed to the specificity of the measure of social support. This measure included questions related to emotional, instrumental and informational support, and the scores were averaged. Thus, the instrumental aspect of support may have been underrepresented in the measure used. On the other hand, additional analysis that compared the scores on individual questions of the social support scale did not show any differences between the Y-O and O-O groups either. Thus, it can be concluded that in our study, both age groups perceived the available social support in a similar way.

Additionally, we found group differences concerning health-related variables (perceived health and depression), and sociodemographic variables (marital and financial status and employment). The Y-O group had higher levels of perceived health and financial status and lower depression than the O-O group. There were more married and employed participants in the Y-O group than in the O-O group. These differences can also be attributed to a changing life situation as people age and they are congruent with other studies’ results (Jeste et al., 2013).

In response to research question two, regarding the associations of SPA with their psychopolitical and psychosocial predictors, significant relationships were found between SPA and political subjectivity and autonomy in both groups. No correlations were found between SPA and political agency and perceived social support. For psychopolitical variables, these results supported Hypothesis 2b (concerning political subjectivity). However, Hypothesis 2a (concerning political agency) was not found to be supported.

Regardless of the age group, political subjectivity was found to be associated with SPA. It expresses the need to belong and is linked to self-consciousness in the active role of a citizen. The need for belonging is a fundamental human need, playing a helpful role in defining the individual Self. As stated by Jones (2023, p. 510), as awareness increases, “the connection between group membership and political attitudes tightens.” The significance of the need to belong is emphasized by research diagnosing the effects of the failure to satisfy this need. It is pointed out that this leads to depression, sadness, and low self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 2002).

No links were obtained between political agency and SPA. The conducted study verified only the readiness to participate in political events. Participation in political events requires mobility and, often, for people with disabilities, social support. Perhaps the obtained declarations should be compared with actual political activity, which involves overcoming the expected barriers and direct satisfaction from the result of the action. Moreover, it is worth pointing out that political events occur more sporadically than regularly. This fact may prioritize the significance of other activities, easier and more frequently available to seniors, for SPA.

For psychosocial variables, the results support Hypothesis 2c that predicted positive associations between SPA and autonomy. Hypothesis 2b (concerning perceived social support) was not found to be supported. It means that only one of the two psychosocial variables we had proposed was related to SPA in this study. Autonomy correlated with SPA in both groups. This correlation was even stronger in the O-O group compared to the Y-O group, but the difference was non-significant. This result is in line with the idea that the present model of SA should be extended to include persons with disabilities and care needs, and that maintaining autonomy (as well as well-being) in very old age should be a priority (Tesch-Römer & Wahl, 2017). Autonomy can be viewed as a personal resource that is not closely related to functional status of an old person, because even if they require help from others, they can still maintain a choice of action (Warner et al., 2011).

There is a strong evidence that social support has many beneficial consequences in old age (Takács & Nyakas, 2021). However, we found only one study that addressed the issue of the relationships between perceived social support and SPA directly, and its findings are not congruent with our result. The study by Santini et al. (2019) shows that social support from a spouse, children, other family members and friends was related to SPA. However, as stated by Warner et al.(2011), social support has two faces – receiving support can sometimes threaten the recipient’s sense of autonomy. For example, a recent study by Zwar et al. (2022) shows that receipt of spousal and adult children care reduced autonomy of older people, irrespective of age. These findings can shed a light on the potential reasons for the lack of relationships between social support and SPA in our study. On the one hand, social support is an important resource to deal with the challenges of aging. On the other hand, using it may not be the preferred way of coping, as it may weaken the sense of coping with age-related problems and reduce the sense of autonomy. For this reason, social support may also not be the preferred criterion for evaluating SPA by older adults. Nevertheless, more research is needed to clarify the relationship between SPA and social support.

The two health-related variables (i.e., perceived health and depression) were associated moderately with SPA in both age groups, which confirms the importance of health opinions for the SA assessment. Among sociodemographic variables, financial status was associated with SPA in both groups, but employment and education only in the Y-O group. These results replicated earlier findings (Martin et al., 2015).

In response to research question three, regarding the incremental validity of the psychopolitical and psychosocial predictors above the health-related and sociodemographic predictors on SPA in both age groups, hierarchical regression analyses were performed. The final model for the O-O group had four significant predictors: both health-related variables (self-perceived health and depression), autonomy, and financial status. These variables explained together 38.1% of the SPA variability. Autonomy had incremental validity over and above health-related factors and financial status in predicting SPA in the O-O group. The final model for the Y-O group included the same variables and one additional predictor – political subjectivity. Both autonomy and political subjectivity had incremental validity over and above health-related and sociodemographic factors in predicting SPA in the Y-O group. This model explained 33.9% of SPA variability. These results expand our previous analyses because they revealed potentially age-related differences in the significance of psychopolitical and psychosocial factors for the prediction of SPA. Firstly, the regression analysis confirmed the importance of autonomy as a SPA predictor, regardless of the age of the participant. Secondly, political subjectivity turned out to be a significant predictor of SPA of younger participants.

In recent years, many discussions have addressed the aging population. Researchers predict trends over several decades primarily due to the multifaceted implications, which in themselves constitute important challenges both for governments and for societies. Moving away from the silver tsunami approach (Summer, 2007), policy makers are increasingly often taking an age-friendly approach, seeking the determinants of SA. Our study is a contribution to the discussion on the determinants of SPA. What makes it stand out is the attention to the relevance of psychopolitical variables (political agency and political subjectivity). This is because research to date has focused predominantly on social and psychological variables. The results presented in the literature also demonstrate the need for a different approach to the Y-O and O-O groups. The study presented here includes these two groups, making it possible to analyze the potential differences between them related to SPA. Bearing in mind the consequences of positive SPA, the results obtained may also be helpful in developing programs activating senior citizens and supporting their social inclusion, as well as political inclusion, as an element of the latter.

The current study has some limitations. Firstly, it was cross-sectional, thus causal inference is not possible. Longitudinal studies are needed to fully understand the relationships between SPA and other variables. Secondly, the study depends on short self-report measures of the variables. The use of self-report measures is justified because the subjective aspect of SA was of interest. Short measures were chosen to reduce the survey length and to minimize the burden placed on the participants. Moreover, these measures were reliable and previously validated. Thirdly, the relationships between the predictors and SPA were rather low, thus, it could be beneficial to replicate the findings to determine the generalizability of the results.

In conclusion, the potential psychopolitical and psychosocial predictors of SPA were investigated in two age groups of older people. According to the results of the current study, the Y-O group had higher levels of SPA and political agency than the O-O group. No between-group differences were observed for autonomy, support and political subjectivity. Significant correlations were found between SPA and political subjectivity and autonomy in both groups. Among potential predictors of SPA, autonomy had incremental validity over health-related and demographic factors in predicting SPA in both age groups, and the same was true for political subjectivity, but only for the Y-O group. As a whole, the findings emphasize the importance of autonomy for older people, regardless of their age. Two psychopolitical variables included in this study behaved differently – the level of political agency differentiated the age groups, whereas political subjectivity emerged as an incremental predictor of SPA only in the younger group.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Agnieszka Turska-Kawa

Irena Pilch

Ethical Considerations

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Silesia (KEUS277/09.2022). The written informed consent was obtained from all participants. The study was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Author Contributions

A.T.K.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing.

I.P.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analyses, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by the National Science Centre, Poland (grant no 2021/41/B/HS5/00102) awarded to the first author.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data are available here: .

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Psychopolitical and Psychosocial Predictors of Self-Perceptions of Aging Among Young-Old and Old-Old Adults

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Current Study

Method

Participants and Procedure

Measures

Sociodemographic Variables

Statistical Analyses

Results

Differences Between the Y-O and O-O Groups

Relationships Between SPA and Other Variables in the Y-O and O-O Groups

Prediction of SPA in the Y-O and O-O Groups

Discussion

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Ethical Considerations

Author Contributions

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References