The Impact of Social Exchange on Referees’ Job Satisfaction: Mediating Effect of Organizational Trust

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to examine how perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange influence job satisfaction through organizational trust among sport referees. A total of 602 referees, most of whom were part-time referees, from 13 different sports in China participated in an online survey. The results of structural equation modeling revealed that leader-member exchange had a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction, while perceived organizational support did not. In addition, the results revealed that organizational trust fully mediated the relationship between perceived organizational support and job satisfaction, while it partially mediated the relationship between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction. These findings suggested that the level of trust that referees had in their organization played a critical role in the impact of perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange on job satisfaction. The findings of this study highlight the importance of positive relationships between referees and their supervisors to improve job satisfaction. Additionally, fostering a culture of trust could enhance the effectiveness of social exchange relationships (i.e., perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange). The study contributes to the existing literature on social exchange theory and job satisfaction, providing implications for how organizations can improve job satisfaction by focusing on social exchange relationships (i.e., perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) and trust-building.

Keywords

perceived organizational support leader-member exchange job satisfaction organizational trust referees

Referees play a critical role in sports (Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013). As neutral parties in the game, they are responsible for enforcing the rules, making split-second decisions that are fair and just (Gomez-Gonzalez et al., 2020), ensuring the safety of participants (Cunningham et al., 2014), and resolving confrontations among players. Referees must ensure the quality of the game (M. Kim et al., 2022), as they can have a significant impact on the outcome and overall experience of spectators and participants. Due to the importance and central role of referees in sport, they tend to experience multiple stressors both on and off the field, including verbal abuse, physical aggression, performance concerns, and family conflicts (Folkesson et al., 2002; Hong et al., 2019; Livingston & Forbes, 2016). In particular, part-time officials in non-professional sports tend to experience unique stressors, as they are less trained, more likely to face threats, and receive less support than full-time, professional referees (Folkesson et al., 2002).

The number of non-professional referees worldwide has been reported to be declining. For instance, in Australia, approximately 1,000 grassroots-level football referees drop out annually (Hill, 2019). In the United States, over 5,000 high school referees quit between 2018 and 2021, accounting for more than 20% of the group (Politakis, 2022). In England, over 30% of football referees withdrew from officiating, leading to a decrease in the number of referees from 33,000 in 2018 to 23,000 in 2022 (Walker, 2022). In China, because of the high turnover rate among junior referees, there are only 10 senior referees who have more than 5 years of refereeing experience in the top league among the 46 referees in the Chinese Super League in 2024, and more than half of the referees have officiated fewer than 10 games in the top league (Transfermarkt, 2024). The decline in referees has resulted in high costs for recruiting and training qualified referees (Holtom et al., 2008) as well as the cancellation of many grassroots sporting events (M. Kim et al., 2022).

Given the situation, understanding the causes of referees’ turnover and exploring ways to retain referees have become important and frequently studied topics in sport research. Previous studies on referees’ turnover has mainly focused on exploring on-field factors, such as verbal abuse and physical threats from players (Folkesson et al., 2002; Webb et al., 2020), coaches (Jacobs et al., 2020) and spectators (Simmons, 2006; Webb, 2018). However, Voight (2009) argued that on-field pressures may not be the main driver of referees’ decision to quit. S. Kim (2017) suggested that many referees have prior experience in sports as players and are familiar with the sources of stress associated with the job, and on-field abuse has become an inherent aspect of the referee role (Phillips & Fairley, 2014). Therefore, recent research has focused on exploring off-field factors in referees’ attrition, particularly from a management perspective. For example, Giel and Breuer (2020, 2023) found that job satisfaction played a key role in referees’ decision to continue their careers, suggesting that more research should be conducted to better understand referees’ job satisfaction and its antecedents.

Despite the extensive research on job satisfaction as a critical factor for the quality of work life in various workplaces, the antecedents and mechanisms of job satisfaction have rarely been studied in the context of sports refereeing. While both sport referees and employees in other sectors contribute to their respective fields, there are notable differences between them. For example, the nature of employment is often quite different. Referees typically work in temporary roles with inconsistent schedules tied to specific sporting events or seasons, while employees in other fields generally have full-time or part-time contracts that provide more consistent work hours, job security, and benefits. In addition, the required skill sets and training somewhat differ. Referees need sport-specific knowledge and expertise, whereas employees in other workplaces often possess industry-specific skills or degrees. Further, referees tend to work in a very public environment in which their performance is not only observed and scrutinized by their supervisors, but also by sport participants, coaches, and spectators, which contrasts with other typical work contexts that tend to be less public in nature. Such disparities justify a need for further research on human resource management practices related to referees (S. Kim, 2017). Giel and Breuer (2023) found that four job satisfaction facets, namely esteem, colleagues, promotion, and allowance were significant predictors of referees’ job satisfaction. S. Kim (2017), meanwhile, explored the relationship among organizational justice, perceived organizational support, job satisfaction, and career commitment based on social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), emphasizing the importance of obligatory reciprocity in the workplace, in the context of sports referees. The study’s findings revealed that perceived organizational support significantly influenced referees’ job satisfaction and fully mediated the relationships between organizational justice and job satisfaction, organizational justice, and career commitment.

Social exchange theory posits that the relationship quality between employees and their organizations (i.e., perceived organizational support) is expected to be a significant construct in influencing employees’ attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, as is the relationship quality between employees and their immediate supervisors (i.e., leader-member exchange). However, there is no apparent study analyzing the influence of leader-member exchange on referees’ attitudinal outcomes, which highlights the need for further research on the relationship in the context of sport referees.

Furthermore, organizational trust has been employed as a mediator to examine the relationship between the two social exchange variables (i.e., perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) and job satisfaction. Trust, defined as a willingness to expose one’s vulnerability to another party (Mayer et al., 1995), is generated through consistent social exchanges and significantly influences attitudinal and behavioral outcomes at work (Laschinger et al., 2001; Paliszkiewicz et al., 2014; Vanhala et al., 2016; Yilmaz, 2008). The logic here is that organizational trust explains why perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange predict referees’ job satisfaction, which aligns with social exchange theory in that consistent social exchange generates trust in the recipient, leading to positive attitudes and behaviors (Blau, 1964).

Therefore, the purpose of the current study is to examine the effect of two different social exchange relationships of referees with the organization (perceived organizational support) and leader (leader-member exchange) on job satisfaction through the mediating effect of organizational trust based on social exchange theory.

Conceptual Framework

Social exchange theory involves a series of interactions that engender obligations (Emerson, 1976), as individuals feel obliged to reciprocate positive attitudes and behaviors when they receive care and respect (Blau, 1964). The interactions are interdependent in that one party is inclined to discontinue the reciprocal relationship when they begin to perceive an imbalanced ratio between their inputs and outputs into the relationship (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Based on social exchange theory, employees engage in meaningful social exchange with a number of parties, including their employer (Moorman et al., 1998), immediate supervisor (Sparrowe & Liden, 1997), team members (Deckop et al., 2003), and customers (Sheth & Parvatiyar, 1995).

Social exchange relationships develop when an organization demonstrates kindness toward employees, resulting in generation of beneficial outcomes. Blau (1964) also noted that exchange relationships are causally connected, and the quality of social exchange between parties can influence the social exchange process. In other words, social exchange relationships can serve as independent variables in the social exchange process. For example, in the context of part-time employment, referees are managed by the organization and frequently interact with their supervisor, who acts as a designated leader responsible for resource allocation (e.g., game training and assignments).

In the context of referees, social exchange theory seems to be more suitable than the effort-reward imbalance model, which is based on the contractual work relationships between effort (e.g., work requirement and/or obligation imposed on employees) and both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards (Siegrist, 1996; van Vegchel et al., 2005). This is because the majority of referees are part-time or volunteers and do not have the same contractual obligations as full-time employees (S. Kim, 2017). Furthermore, previous studies have documented that referees are motivated not only by external factors, such as earning money (M. Kim et al., 2022), but also by internal factors, such as socializing (Kellett & Warner, 2011), sense of achievement (Livingston & Forbes, 2016), and involvement in sports (Warner et al., 2013). Therefore, they are expected to develop an exchange relationship with the organization and leader when receiving game assignments and other duties (Livingston & Forbes, 2016). For example, referees pursue involvement in their sport and psychological accomplishment, as they frequently receive organizational and supervisory support, which helps them fulfill their motivations (Zvosec et al., 2021). Both the organization and leader, who can anticipate the norm of reciprocity, will drive referees to reciprocate with positive attitudes toward the organization and the leader. While referees may often interact with players, coaches, and teams, they are less likely to form social exchange relationships with those figures due to the nature of their profession, which stresses independence and often involves strained relationships with the teams they officiate (Webb et al., 2020). Therefore, the conceptual framework was designed to include perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, organizational trust, and job satisfaction (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework.

Perceived Organizational Support

Perceived organizational support refers to employees’ perceptions of support from their organization and indicates how much the organization values their efforts and well-being (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Kurtessis et al. (2017) noted perceived organizational support serves as a means for employees to evaluate the quality of their relationship with the organization from their perspective. Employees perceived organizational support is based on favorable treatments, such as display of concern and awards from the organization (Wayne et al., 2002). In the context of sport referees, perceived organizational support could be displayed through such actions as honoring referees with awards and implementing policies to protect their reputation and ensure their safety.

Based on perceived organization theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986), employees who perceive high levels of organizational support tend to develop a greater sense of obligation toward the organization and are more inclined to contribute to its goals. Employees who perceive a high level of perceived organizational support will feel obliged to reciprocate positive attitudes and behaviors toward the organization, as indicated by increased organizational commitment (Aubé et al., 2007), job satisfaction (Poon et al., 2007), organizational citizenship behavior (Wu & Liu, 2014), and reduced turnover intention (Dawley et al., 2010). Kurtessis et al.’s (2017) meta-analysis with 558 studies found that perceived organizational support positively impacted organizational identification, affective commitment, job self-efficacy, and organizational citizenship behavior, while being negatively correlated with working stress, burnout, and turnover intention.

In the field of sport management, perceived organizational support has been frequently studied based on different roles within sport teams, including the coach (Rocha & Chelladurai, 2011), athlete (Chun et al., 2022), athletic administrator (Pack, 2005), and referee (S. Kim, 2017). In the context of coaches and athletes, perceived organizational support has been consistently identified as a reliable predictor of athletic performance (Rocha & Chelladurai, 2011), job engagement (Carrell et al., 2022), and turnover intention (Pack, 2005). The research on perceived organizational support in the context of athletic administration revealed a significant influence on turnover intention (Worku, 2015) and job satisfaction (Dixon & Sagas, 2007). Regarding the relationship perceived organizational support and its outcomes in the context of referees, several studies have been conducted in the last decade. While Cuskelly and Hoye’s (2013) quasi-experimental research design indicated that perceived organizational support did not significantly influence referees’ intention to continue, multiple other students have identified a significant relationship between perceived organizational support and referees’ attitudinal and behavior outcomes. For instance, H. Choi and Chiu (2017) conducted a survey among Korean football referees and found that perceived organizational support positively related to referees’ job satisfaction and career commitment, while negatively affecting referees’ turnover intention. S. Kim (2017) found that perceived organizational support mediated the relationship between organizational justice and Hong Kong basketball referees’ job satisfaction and career commitment. Giel and Breuer (2020) found that German voluntary football referees’ self-oriented motivation, experience (including perceived organizational support), and job satisfaction predicted their intention to continue. Overall, the findings and discussions from the previous research on the topic suggest that perceived organizational support plays crucial role in influencing referees’ attitudinal and behavioral outcomes.

Leader-Member Exchange

Leader-member exchange refers to the quality of the dyadic relationship between the leader and the subordinate (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). As a subset of social exchange theory (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005), leader-member exchange also emphasizes the importance of “discretionary treatment”and“norm of reciprocity”(Blau, 1964; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). The quality of leader-member exchange depends on the shared judgment of employees and leaders about each other (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995).

Leader-member exchange has been frequently studied in the field of organizational behavior (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005) and has been found to significantly influence multiple attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, trust, empowerment, turnover intention, creativity, task performance, and organizational citizenship behavior (Chung & Jeon, 2020; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Martin et al., 2016; Mumtaz & Rowley, 2020).

Although the research on leadership in sport dates back to the 1980s (Chelladurai, 1984; Chelladurai & Carron, 1981), studies that have accepted leader-member exchange as a construct are limited and mostly conducted in a coach-athlete setting. For example, Cranmer and Myers (2015) pointed out that high school athletes with a higher level of leader-member exchange were more satisfied with their jobs and had greater social cohesion than those with lower leader-member exchange. In a study on professional soccer players, Yildiz (2011) reported that leader-member exchange was negatively related to burnout, while Chiu et al. (2022) found that leader-member exchange negatively impacts university athletes’ turnover intention. However, to the best of our knowledge, the impacts of leader-member exchange on referees’ attitudinal outcomes have not been explored. Referees are likely to perceive the quality of relationship with the leader based on such factors as game allocation and communication, and such perceptions may impact the referee’s attitudinal and behavioral outcomes.

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction entails the extent to which employees develop a pleasant emotional state from an appraisal of their jobs (Locke, 1969) and is one of the most frequently researched constructs in organizational behavior studies, dating back to the 1930s (Hoppock, 1935). Previous organizational behavior literature has confirmed the significance of job satisfaction in relation to many attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, including organizational commitment (Aydogdu & Asikgil, 2011), turnover intention (S. E. Choi & Kim, 2016), organizational citizenship behavior (Tharikh et al., 2016), and work performance (Baluyos et al., 2019). For sport referees, where most are voluntary and have limited remuneration, Giel and Breuer (2020) found that job satisfaction is a main driver for referees to continue officiating. H. Choi and Chiu (2017), meanwhile, identified a similar correlation between job satisfaction and turnover intention among Korean football referees. Overall, if referees experience less satisfaction, they may be more inclined to withdraw from refereeing without contractual obligations. Therefore, additional research is needed to explore the antecedents and mechanisms of referees’ job satisfaction.

Based on social exchange theory, when employees perceive support and favorable treatment from both the organization and their leader, it is expected that they will reciprocate with positive attitudinal outcomes, such as increased job satisfaction. The relationship between social exchange and job satisfaction has been firmly established in organization literature. For example, Riggle et al. (2009) conducted a meta-analysis across multiple studies and determined that perceived organizational support positively influences satisfaction. Another meta-analysis by Gerstner and Day (1997) found a significant positive relationship between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction. Yuliani et al. (2021) found that both perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange positively impact job satisfaction. Sport referees are frequently criticized and marginalized by players, coaches, and spectators (Webb et al., 2020) and may often encounter conflicts with family and their main jobs (Hong et al., 2019; S. Kim & Yip, 2018). In such cases, support from the organization, such as appropriate non-financial rewards (e.g., formal appreciation ceremonies to recognize outstanding performance, assigning them to officiate desirable matches, and implementing policies that safeguard their reputation and ensure safety), can help referees develop a sense of community, which would improve their level of job satisfaction (Kellett & Warner, 2011). In addition, given the nature of voluntary referees having less direct contact with the organization, the leader is expected to convey information and policies from the organization and frequently interact with referees. Although the correlations between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction have not been investigated in the referees’ context, the existing literature leads us to the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Perceived organizational support will positively influence referees’job satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2: Leader-member exchange will positively influence referees’job satisfaction.

Organizational Trust as A Mediator

The current study adopted organizational trust as a mediator to understand the mechanism between social exchange and job satisfaction. In a foundational piece, Mayer et al. (1995) defined trust as the willingness of one party “to be vulnerable to the actions of another party based on the expectation that the other will perform a particular action important to the trustor, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control that other party” (p. 712). In the sport management literature, Tingle (2016) adopted the definition of organizational trust as “one party’s willingness to be vulnerable to another party because of the confidence that the latter party is (a) benevolent, (b) reliable, (c) competent, (d) honest, and (e) open” as described by Hoy and Tschannen-Moran (1999, p.189), and further explored the relationship between coaching tenure and trust in intercollegiate athletics. According to Mayer et al.’s (1995) vulnerability-based trust model, parties with a high level of ability, benevolence, and integrity are more likely to be trusted by others. In the current study, we employ organizational trust to assess sport referees’ trust in the organizations they work for.

Research on organizational trust has been regarded as a crucial topic in organizational literature (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Dirks & Ferrin, 2001; Sapienza et al., 2013). Organizational trust has been found to significantly influence multiple cognitive and behavioral outcomes, including job satisfaction (Laschinger et al., 2001), organizational commitment (Vanhala et al., 2016; Yilmaz, 2008) and job performance (Paliszkiewicz et al., 2014). Social exchange relationships, including perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange (Rockstuhl et al., 2012; Shukla & Rai, 2015), have been supported as antecedents of organizational trust. Social exchange theory notes that the foundation of social exchange involves trust, since the social exchange participants expect that the other party will reciprocate in the future (Blau, 1964). Consistent social exchanges and mutual investment in relationships can fulfill trust (Neves & Caetano, 2006), thereby strengthening the relationships.

Trust in the organization plays a vital role in the success of the social exchange process, especially for part-time or voluntary referees who do not have a contractual guarantee for their participation in games and are not involved in the organization’s decision-making regarding their assignments. Establishing high-quality social exchange relationships with their organization will make it more likely that referees perceive the organization as protecting their benefits and securing their opportunities, consequently increasing their satisfaction. According to Eisenberger et al. (1990), perceived organizational support generates trust in the organization’s commitment to fulfilling its reciprocal obligation by rewarding employees for their contributions. In addition, organizational trust may mediate the relationship between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction in the referees’ context.

Based on social exchange theory, Whitener (1997) argues that actions by individuals representing the organization, such as human resource decisions, result in employees attributing those individuals’ actions to the organization itself. In turn, employees are more likely to reciprocate by forming their own attitudes toward the organization rather than the individual representatives. As a result, outcomes that employees experience as a result of individual actions will either increase or reduce their trust in the organization. Similarly, when an individual is granted a high degree of decision-making authority by an organization (e.g., resource allocation), subordinates’ perceptions of the organization’s value could be influenced by behaviors of the individual who is granted such power (Tyler & Kramer, 1996), and the subordinates may regard the individual as a surrogate of the organization (Whitener, 1997). For referees, sport organization leaders are authorized with human resource duties, such as training and match assignment (S. Kim, 2017), and referees’ perception of their leaders may shape their overall perception of the organization. The quality of relationship between referees and their managers (i.e., leader-member exchange), may also impact referees’ trust in the organization. Moreover, Aryee et al. (2002) found that trust in the organization mediates the relationship between procedural and distributive justice and job satisfaction, which may also elucidate the social exchange process in the referees setting.

Previous scholars (Alder et al., 2006; Martin et al., 2016; Singh & Malhotra, 2015) have consistently demonstrated the indirect relationships between social exchange relationships (perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange) and work-related outcomes through organizational trust. For example, Pucetaite and Novelskaite (2014) reported an indirect relationship between leader-member exchange and organizational innovativeness through organizational trust. Singh and Malhotra (2015) indicated trust mediated perceived organizational support and organizational silence. Tabak and Hendy (2016) identified that trust partially mediated perceived organizational support and work engagement. Based on the above discussion, the following hypotheses were proposed.

Hypothesis 3: Organizational trust will mediate the relationship between perceived organizational support and job satisfaction of referees.

Hypothesis 4: Organizational trust will mediate the relationship between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction of referees.

Method

Participants and Procedures

Registered and former referees from the grassroots through elite levels of 13 sports in China were recruited to participate in the current study via snowball sampling. To collect data, an online questionnaire and consent form were distributed using Wenjuanxing, a popular questionnaire platform in China (C. Wang et al., 2020). Initial participants were asked to refer other eligible referees by sending them the link including the survey and consent form. Data collection was conducted from July to August 2022, resulting in a total of 602 valid questionnaires. The median age for the participants was 27 with 7.5 years of refereeing experience (SD = 7.6). Of the participants, 433 were men (71.9%) and 169 were women (28. 1%). Complete demographic information is provided in Table 1.

Table 1.

Demographic Information.

Demographic information	Category	Frequency	Percentage
Sport	Football	311	51.7
	Badminton	105	17.4
	Track and field	61	10.1
	Basketball	28	4.7
	Volleyball	25	4.2
	Table tennis	24	4.0
	Gymnastics	12	2.0
	Swimming	11	1.8
Gender	Male	433	71.9
Gender	Female	169	28.1
Age	Less than 20	15	2.5
	20–25	256	42.5
	26–30	104	17.3
	31–35	41	6.8
	36–40	40	6.6
	41–45	34	5.6
	0ver 45	112	18.6
Level of refereeing	Level-3	93	15.4
	Level-2	117	19.4
	Level-1	321	53.3
	National	71	11.8
Years of refereeing	0–5	334	55.5
experience	6–10	156	25.9
	11–15	34	5.6
	16–20	35	5.8
	21–25	17	2.8
	Over 25	26	4.3
Full or part time	Full-time	31	5.1
Full or part time	Part-time	571	94.9

Based on information provided by the General Administration of Sport of China (2017), there were a total of 95,472 sport referees in China, with the majority of them being part-time and having another primary job (X. Wang et al., 2023). The majority of participants in the current study (95%) were also part-time referees, which aligns well with the overall profile of sports referees in China. To ensure statistical validity, investigators used a sample size calculator assuming a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level (Heen et al., 2014). The calculated minimal sample size required was 383, which was substantially less than the sample (n = 602) in the current study

Measurements

The questionnaire consisted of demographic variables (e.g., referee level, years of officiating, gender, and nature of sport), as well as measures of perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, organizational trust, and job satisfaction. All items were assessed on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), and were adapted to fit the context of sport referees. The back-translation method (Brislin, 1970) was used since all the survey scales were initially created in English. Specifically, two Chinese postgraduates who specialized in English initially translated the scale from English to Chinese. Subsequently, two other bilingual Chinese postgraduates back-translated the scale to establish item equivalence in both languages. Finally, a language expert who had been teaching English at a university for over 10 years compared the original and back-translated items for content equivalence. A pilot test was then conducted with 15 Chinese sports referees, who reported that they fully understood all the items.

In measuring perceived organizational support of referees, the study utilized a 7-item scale developed by Farmer and Fedor (1999). Sample items included “The sport organization cares about my opinion” and “The sport organization fails to appreciate any extra effort from me (reverse coded).” The reported Cronbach alpha (α) was .97. For leader-member exchange, the study adopted the 7-item scale developed by Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) to assess the quality of exchange relationship between referees and their refereeing leader. Samples items were “I feel that my leader understands my problems and needs” and “I can count on my leader to support me even when I am in a challenging situation at work.” The reported Cronbach alpha (α) was .94. For job satisfaction, the study used the 5-item scale of Judge et al. (1998), which has been used in previous referee studies (S. Kim, 2017). Sample items included “Each day of refereeing work seems like it will never end (reverse coded)” and “I find real enjoyment in my work of being a referee.” The reported Cronbach alpha (α) was .88. To measure organizational trust of referees, the study adopted Moye’s (2003) 7-item scale since the scale measures the level of trust that individuals have toward the system level of trust. Sample items included “Since I am unable to personally monitor all of my organization’s activities, I would be willing to trust the systems of the sport organization to get the job done right” and “I believe my sport organization is credible.” The reported Cronbach alpha (α) was .92.

Data Analysis

First, the measurement model was tested through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). For overall model fit, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and standardized root mean square residuals (SRMR) were utilized to assess the model. The measurement model is deemed acceptable when CFI and TLI are over 0.9 and RMSEA and SRMR are less than 0.08, respectively (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Internal consistency reliability was tested using composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach alpha with thresholds of .5 and .7, respectively (Hair et al., 2009). Convergent validity is supported when the average variance extracted (AVE) is over 0.5 (Hair et al., 2009). The heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) was utilized to assess the discriminate validity, with a recommended threshold of 0.9 (Henseler et al., 2015). After examining the measurement model, the proposed structural model was examined via structural equation modeling (SEM). Both CFA and SEM were conducted using AMOS 26.0, while the reliability and frequency analyses were conducted using SPSS 23.0.

Results

Model Testing and Modification

The initial measurement model did not fit the data well, with χ² = 1687.537 (df = 293, p < .001), CFI = 0.847, TLI = 0.830, RMSEA = 0.089, SRMR = 0.076. Based on Byrne’s (2001) suggestion, seven items with low standardized factor loadings (<0.50) were removed. The structural validity of the revised model was acceptable with χ² = 681.505 (df = 145, p < .001), CFI = 0.931, TLI = 0.919, RMSEA = 0.078, SRMR = 0.053. In addition, internal consistency reliability was acceptable since the coefficients of Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .76 (job satisfaction) to .91 (organizational trust), and the CR index ranged from .78 (job satisfaction) to .91 (organizational trust). Convergent validity was evidenced as AVE values ranged from 0.54 (job satisfaction) to 0.66 (organizational trust; Hair et al., 2009). Regarding discriminant validity, the maximum value was 0.85, lower than the benchmark of 0.90 (Henseler et al., 2015), and therefore supported. Table 2 provides the coefficients for each item, the means, standard deviations, internal consistency, CR, and AVE for each construct. Table 3 shows the correlations among the constructs and reveals that all constructs were above the mid-point of the scale (3.00), ranging from 3.59 (perceived organizational support) to 3.99 (job satisfaction).

Table 2.

Means (M), Standard Deviations (SD), and Coefficients (λ) for the Constructs (N = 602).

Factors and items	λ	M	SD	α	CR	AVE
Perceived Organizational Support				.877	0.879	0.644
Help is available from the spot organization when I have a problem	.739	3.81	0.825
The sport organization really cares about my well-being	.827	3.33	1.016
The sport organization cares about my opinions	.840	3.55	0.898
The sport organization tries to make my referee job as interesting as possible	.801	3.67	0.923
Leader-member exchange				.903	0.90	0.565
I usually know how satisfied my immediate leader is with what I do.	.777	3.63	0.846
I feel that my immediate leader understands my problems and needs	.864	3.64	0.837
I feel that my immediate leader recognizes my potential	.824	3.66	0.889
If necessary, my immediate leader would use his or her power and influence to help me	.706	3.56	0.875
I can count on my immediate leader to support me even when I’m in a tough situation at work	.744	3.67	0.876
I would support my immediate leader’s decisions even if he or she was not present	.668	3.88	0.760
I have an effective working relationship with my immediate leader	.653	3.87	0.762
Organizational trust				.906	0.907	0.664
I believe my sport organization is capable of designing programs that meet referees’ needs	.676	3.78	0.801
Since I am unable to personally monitor all of my organization’s activities, I would be willing to trust the systems of the sport organization to get the job done right	.706	3.87	0.720
I believe my sport organization is a credible organization	.875	3.96	0.792
I feel that I can rely on the systems on my sport organization	.896	3.90	0.769
I have confidence in the systems of my sport organization	.893	3.90	0.749
Job satisfaction				.757	0.780	0.543
I feel fairly well satisfied with my present referee job	.674	3.75	0.884
Most days I am enthusiastic about my referee work	.766	4.16	0.747
I find real enjoyment in my work of referee	.752	4.06	0.733

Table 3.

Means (M), Standard Deviations (SD), Correlations Among Constructs

		1 (POS)	2 (LMX)	3 (OT)	M	SD
1	Perceived organizational support (POS)				3.593	0.784
2	Leader-member exchange (LMX)	0.860**			3.701	0.665
3	Organizational trust (OT)	0.701**	0.670**		3.881	0.653
4	Job satisfaction (JS)	0.644**	0.688**	0.811**	3.990	0.649

**p < .01.

Common Method Bias Test

Before testing the hypotheses, the potential problem of common method bias was examined. Common method bias is defined as “variance that is attributable to the measurement method rather than to the constructs the measures represent” (Podsakoff et al., 2003, p. 879). It was necessary to examine this problem because the data in the current study were collected through a single-source approach (i.e., self-reported scales). Consequently, Harman’s single-factor test was employed (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The results revealed that common method bias was not a threat in the current study, as the total variance explained by one single factor was 40.4%, lower than the recommended threshold of 50% (Podsakoff et al., 2003).

Hypotheses Testing

The proposed model also showed a good fit of data with χ² = 664.562 (df = 145, p < .001), CFI = 0.934, TLI = 0.922, RMSEA = 0.077, SRMR = 0.053], fulfilling the criteria proposed by Hu and Bentler (1999). Accordingly, path analysis was employed to examine the proposed hypothesis as the next step. As shown in Table 4 and Figure 2, leader-member exchange positively impacted job satisfaction (β = .27 p < .01), while the effect of perceived organizational support on job satisfaction was insignificant (p = .53). Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was supported, but not Hypothesis 1

Table 4.

Path Analysis Results.

Path	Path coefficients (β)	SD	p
Perceived organizational support → Job satisfaction	−0.057	0.257	.53
Leader-member exchange → Job satisfaction	0.268	0.257	.002**
Organizational trust → Job satisfaction	0.671	0.257	<.01**
Perceived organizational support → Organizational trust	0.48	0.257	<.01**
Leader-member exchange → Organizational trust	0.257	0.257	.002**
	Direct effect(p)	Indirect effect(p)	Total effect(p)
Perceived organizational support→ Organizational trust → Job satisfaction	−0.597 (0.592)	0.322 (0.001**)	.256 (.022*)
Leader-member exchange→ Organizational trust → Job satisfaction	0.268 (0.004**)	0.173 (0.005**)	.441 (.001**)

*p < .05 level. **p < .01.

Figure 2.

Final research model.

Secondly, the bootstrap method was applied to test the mediating role of organizational trust between perceived organizational support and job satisfaction (Hypothesis 3) and the relationship between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction (Hypothesis 4). The findings of the mediating analysis supported both Hypothesis 3 and Hypothesis 4. In particular, the indirect effect of perceived organizational support through organizational trust was significant (p < .01). Meanwhile, the direct path between and job satisfaction was not statistically supported (p = .59). Therefore, the results showed that organizational trust fully mediated the relationship between perceived organizational support and job satisfaction. Organizational trust partially mediated the association between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction. The results showed that both the direct paths between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction (p < .01) and the indirect paths between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction through organizational trust (p < .01) were statistically supported.

Discussion

Despite the high rate of referees’ attrition, research on referees’ job satisfaction is scant, and there is a strong need for research on this important topic (Hancock et al., 2022; Livingston & Forbes, 2016; Ridinger et al., 2017). However, a comprehensive study examining organizational and leaders’ relationships with referee job satisfaction has not been conducted. Therefore, the current study explored the mechanism of how social exchange relationships (perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) influence referees’ job satisfaction based on social exchange theory (Blau, 1964). The findings shed light on referees’ job satisfaction and offered important implications for sport organizations to improve management techniques and strategies, which may help address the problem of referees’ attrition.

In this study, referees who participated perceived a higher level of relationship with their leader (M = 3.70) compared to their relationship with the organization (M = 3.59). This is the first study to directly compare these two social exchange relationships among referees. Previous research has primarily focused on perceived organizational support and suggested that referees valued support from the organization (Livingston & Forbes, 2016). However, our findings suggest that referees prioritize their relationship with their leader over their relationship with the organization. This may be due to the nature of the referee’s work as a freelancer, which means they do not have a fixed workplace within the organization and have fewer opportunities for direct interaction with the organization. Instead, the referee’s leader is the person with whom they have regular contact. As a result, referees are expected to have a stronger relationship with their leader due to more frequent interaction, compared to their relationship with the organization.

Referees reported a comparatively high level of job satisfaction by deriving emotional pleasure from officiating (M = 3.99). Todd and Andrew (2008) pointed out that sports practitioners (e.g., coaches, athletes, and administrators) are more likely to be internally motivated to work despite low incomes, compared to employees in other industries. As an essential part of the sports industry, most referees began officiating due to a desire to stay involved with the sport, a sense of community, a sense of achievement, and accomplishment (Livingston & Forbes, 2016; Warner et al., 2013). Senior referees even regard officiating as leisure (Phillips & Fairley, 2014). Çoban (2010) explained that referees perceive a great sense of satisfaction when they have been appointed to officiate games and receive a sense of accomplishment. The above discussion suggested that referees could be easily satisfied due to their psychological attachment to the occupation. Although the descriptive study showed a reasonable level of referees’ job satisfaction, there is room for sport organizations to improve referees’ emotional attraction toward officiating (Giel & Breuer, 2023; S. Kim, 2017).

Although discriminant validity was supported, the results revealed that leader-member exchange and perceived organizational support were highly correlated (r = .86). One possible explanation for this is that most referees were not full-time and had little direct contact with their organizations. Instead, the refereeing leaders were authorized considerable power by the organizations (e.g., determining game assignments; Hancock et al., 2022). In addition, organizational notification is commonly sent out by the refereeing leader via emails or social media (S. Kim, 2017). The organization, therefore, is partially represented by the referee leader. Under these circumstances, referees may blur the distinction between their relationship with the organization and the refereeing leader (Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013), thus leading to a correlation between the concepts of perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange among respondents.

Regarding the direct and indirect relationships among variables in the hypotheses, we first found that leader-member exchange significantly influenced referees’ job satisfaction. Consistent with social exchange theory, recipients are expected to reciprocate with positive attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, including job satisfaction, when they receive favorable treatment from the other party (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). In addition, previous organizational behavior studies have also indicated that leader-member exchange is a reliable predictor of job satisfaction (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Yuliani et al., 2021). A good relationship with the leader often implies that employees may obtain more resources and opportunities in their careers (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), enabling employees to be more engaged in their jobs and more likely to succeed in their career goals. For referees, a high-quality relationship with the leader often implies more officiating opportunities or being appointed to officiate desirable games (Kellett & Warner, 2011; Phillips & Fairley, 2014). After receiving favorable treatment from the leader, referees reciprocate with more satisfaction in officiating based on the assumption of social exchange theory. On the other hand, perceived organizational support surprisingly did not relate to job satisfaction, although numerous organizational and sport management studies found that perceived organizational support positively influences job satisfaction (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Riggle et al., 2009). One potential explanation is that referees may voluntarily officiate games due to internal or external motivations. Being assigned to games and promoted to higher certification levels allows referees to achieve their goals and experience a sense of accomplishment. In other words, game assignment and promotion are important to referees. However, these two organizational duties are typically carried out by the leader, and since referees have less direct interaction with the organization, the effect of organizational support may be less salient for them.

The results revealed that organizational trust played a mediating role between social exchange variables (perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) and job satisfaction. Social exchange theory states that social exchange involves trust, which is generated with consistent exchange success (Blau, 1964). However, numerous studies on social exchange theory have highlighted attitudinal outcomes, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment as the proximal outcomes of social exchange (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Lavelle et al., 2007). Eisenberger et al. (1990) advocated that social exchange (e.g., perceived organizational support) would create trust in the organization, prompting employees to reciprocate with constructive attitudes toward work. The current study supported Eisenberger et al.’s (1990) study which illustrated that organizational trust fully mediated the relationship between perceived organizational support and job satisfaction and partially mediated the relationship between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction. So far, the construct of organizational trust has not drawn scholars’ attention in sport management; however, organizational trust should be a critical predictor in exploring attitudinal and behavioral outcomes for freelance workers, such as sport referees.

Referees usually do not have a contract (S. Kim, 2017) and cannot predict how many and what games they will be allocated. When referees are less involved in the organization and take a passive position, they rely on a high level of trust in the organizational system to fairly distribute games and promote eligible candidates. This trust allows referees to focus on building reciprocated relationships and providing the organization and leader with a positive attitude toward work. Mayer et al. (1995) identified ability, benevolence, and integrity as factors that contribute to perceived trust. In the context of referees, integrity refers to the organization’s ability to abide by the rules and treat referees fairly, and it is a critical factor in building organizational trust. Therefore, sports authorities can enhance referees’ perception of organizational trust by establishing a rational and transparent working system and involving referees in crucial decision-making processes, such as promotions and rewards.

Theoretical Implications

Currently, research on social exchange relationships of referees has received less attention in sport management literature. Scholars tend to explain referees’ attitudes and behaviors from the perspective of on-field factors (e.g., abuse, violence) because referees experience multiple stresses during the competitions (Folkesson et al., 2002; Jacobs et al., 2020). Based on previous studies that focused on organizational factors influencing referees’ attitudes and performance (Hancock et al., 2022; Livingston & Forbes, 2016; Ridinger et al., 2017; Warner et al., 2013; Zvosec et al., 2021) and the application of social exchange theory in the refereeing context (S. Kim, 2017), the current study extended social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) by introducing leader-member exchange and organizational trust in the sport refereeing context. In addition, the current study extended the understanding of job satisfaction of sport referees by uncovering the mechanisms leading from social exchange relationships to referees’ job satisfaction through the mediator of organizational trust based on social exchange theory (Blau, 1964). Building upon previous research, both perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange were proposed to shape referees’ trust in the organization, as the leader is viewed as the organization’s representative. This study offers a novel perspective for the sport management literature to understand the psychological processes underlying referees’ attitudes. The relationships based on social exchange theory and organizational trust perspective also complement a comprehensive and robust theoretical explanation of the antecedents of referees’ job satisfaction.

Second, this study highlights the crucial role of organizational trust in developing referees’ job satisfaction. Specifically, the finding that organizational trust mediates the relationship between referees’ perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange and job satisfaction can contribute to the sport management literature by introducing the construct of trust into the context of sport referees and empirically demonstrating the social exchange patterns between different social exchange relationships (i.e., perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) and referees’ job satisfaction.

Third, this study provides novel evidence of the direct relationship between leader-member exchange and organizational trust in the context of sport referees. Although leader-member exchange occurs at the supervisor-employee level, organizational trust is an organizational-level construct. Based on Whitener’s (1997) explanation of the sources of organizational trust, which highlights how employees tend to attribute their perception of human resource decision-makers to the organization and generate organizational trust, we found that the quality of the relationship between referees and referee managers (i.e., leader-member exchange) influences organizational trust. This cross-structural social exchange research not only extends the application of social exchange theory in the sport management literature but also highlights the significant role referee leaders in the organization.

Practical Implications

These results have multiple implications that may help sport organizations develop strategies for promoting referees’ job satisfaction, thereby sustaining this valuable human resource in sport organizations. First, given that perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange could directly and indirectly influence referees’ job satisfaction, sport organizations should focus on encouraging interaction and communication with referees and developing strong relationships with referees. For example, the sport organization may regularly host recreational activities as well as social events to promote interaction among referees, leaders, and the organization, thus increasing the quality of social exchange (Warner et al., 2013). In addition, the organizations may frequently host informational seminars, education sessions, and meetings in the workplace, which could help referees directly interact with the organization and develop an enhanced sense of community (Kellett & Warner, 2011; Ridinger et al., 2017).

Furthermore, organizational trust revealed a critical mediating role in the relationship between social exchange and job satisfaction, highlighting the need for the sport organization to take appropriate actions to improve its own organizational management to foster trust in the system of the organization. The appropriate actions should be implemented based on three key dimensions (i.e., ability, benevolence, and integrity) of Mayer et al.’s (1995) vulnerability-based model. For instance, the sport organization may make the formal procedure of game assignment and promotion more transparent, thereby enabling referees to be fully aware of why they are selected or not selected, since S. Kim (2017) pointed out that referees had very limited information about the organization’s decision-making process. This action could increase the integrity of the organization, a key construct of Mayer et al.’s (1995). framework of trust. Sageer et al. (2012) also argued that employees’ suggestions that the organization has adopted would boost employees’ confidence in the organization. Consequently, the sport organization can add ways for referees to provide feedback, such as regularly distributing anonymous questionnaires.

Limitations and Future Research

Although this study contributes to various aspects of sport management literature and organization, there are several limitations that need to be considered. First, the generalizability of the current study may be limited because the participants were Chinese sports referees. In China, power distances are large, and the concept of hierarchy is relatively strong (Friedmann, 2006), so referees may highly value the personal authority of their leaders. Therefore, further studies are needed to examine whether leader-member exchange similarly influences referees’ job satisfaction in Western countries where power distance is less substantial. Apart from the difference in power distance, research on Western referees has both academic and practical significance. Currently, information related to referee attrition and shortage has been frequently reported in the Western world (Politakis, 2022; Walker, 2022). In addition, referees from Western countries play significant roles in mega sport events. For example, 52.5% of referees who officiated basketball at the Paris 2024 Olympics came from Western countries (FIBA, 2023). Further, 18 Western referees served as main officials at the Qatar 2022 World Cup, accounting for 50% of the referees (Reuters, 2022).

In addition, 51.7% of participants in the sample were football referees, and it would be beneficial for future research to make comparisons between referees in different sports. Furthermore, the current study employed a cross-sectional design using a single survey. It is important that the cross-sectional design has certain limitations, such as the potential for common-method bias (Lindell & Whitney, 2001). Thus, future research could benefit from using longitudinal studies since the quality of relationships between referees and organizations/leaders may change over time, and the outcomes of these relationships may not be stable. Longitudinal studies could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the causal relationships between social exchange relationships, organizational trust, and job satisfaction among referees. Additionally, the current study used snowball sampling for data collection, which does not address the fundamental assumption of random sampling. Convenience sampling, relying on referrals from existing participants, may not fully represent the target population, which can lead to bias and limit the generality of the findings (Naderifar et al., 2017). Therefore, future studies should consider adopting a random sampling method to enhance the generalizability and validity of their findings. Further, the current study evidenced the significance of social exchange relationships (i.e., perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) in influencing referees’ organizational trust and job satisfaction. Future studies could further explore more social exchange relationships in referees’ settings (e.g., perceived organizational obstruction; Gibney et al., 2009). Finally, one of the key findings of this study was that organizational trust plays a significant role in the context of referees. Given the importance of trust and the vulnerability and instability of refereeing, future research could further explore the role of trust as a significant construct in understanding referees’ attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, such as career commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors, and turnover intention.

Conclusion

Referees play a critical role in the sports system. Therefore, research is necessary to explore referees as important human resources and their working experience. The current study investigated 602 Chinese referees from 13 sports (e.g., football, badminton, and track and field) through online questionnaires and extended the knowledge of referees’ job satisfaction using perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange and organizational trust based on the social exchange theory. The results identified direct and indirect relationships between social exchange relationships (i.e., perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) and referees’ job satisfaction through organizational trust. Most notably, organizational trust fully mediated the relationship between perceived organizational support and job satisfaction and partially mediated the relationship between leader-member exchange and job satisfaction. These results highlight the importance of sport organizations developing high-quality relationships with referees from various perspectives and increasing referees’ trust toward the organization.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Seungmo Kim

Adam Love

Statements and Declarations

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