Abstract
Intent to stay is a phenomenon that has remained one of the recipes for an efficient and vibrant organization, which is pivotal to organizational success and continuity in Nigerian organizations. However, more knowledge of the influencing factors and mechanisms must be gained. Based on the theory of planned behavior, this present study, adopting a two-wave design, conducted a cross-sectional survey of 515 nurses of federal government-owned hospitals in Southeast Nigeria to investigate the mediating role of psychological ownership (PO) in the relationship between perceived insider status (PIS) and intent to stay (ITS) using convenience sampling. The results revealed that PIS and PO had a significant positive relationship with intent to stay. In addition, PO significantly mediated the relationship between perceived insider status and intent to stay. The study findings highlight that enhancing perceived insider status and fostering psychological ownership are critical strategies for improving nurse retention. Healthcare organizations prioritizing these factors will likely see increased job satisfaction, reduced turnover, and better patient care outcomes. Organizations can create a more stable and committed nursing workforce by understanding and addressing nurses’ psychological and emotional needs.
Plain language summary
The study examined how nurses’ feelings about their place in their organization (perceived insider status) affect their desire to stay in their job (intent to stay). It also examined how a feeling of personal investment and responsibility for their work (psychological ownership) plays a role in this relationship. The study found that perceived insider status and psychological ownership positively impact the intent to stay. In addition, psychological ownership mediated the relationship between perceived insider status and intent to stay. This study highlights that enhancing perceived insider status and fostering psychological ownership are critical strategies for improving nurse retention.
Introduction
Nursing is a career in the healthcare sector, which involves the upkeep of individuals to reach quality life and maintain optimal health (Al Zamel et al., 2020). Nurses are vigorously involved in health care investigation, management, policy deliberations, and patient advocacy (Akinwale & George, 2020). These responsibilities add up to make nursing a demanding profession in the world. More often, nurses complain of intention to leave, excess workload, work overtime and work-family conflicts (Interpreter et al., 2019). These challenges and more make nurses easily worn out and less willing to continue in their profession. The present deficiency and high turnover intention by registered nurses are of great concern in developing countries because of their adverse impact on the healthcare sector (Ike et al., 2024). Accordingly, Engeda et al. (2014) reported a decline among healthcare professionals, especially nurses in underdeveloped countries. Unfortunately, this shortage is because of a mass exodus to Western countries (Omar et al., 2018). Such expeditions by nurses create more health challenges for developing countries like Nigeria.
In Nigeria, the retention of nurses has been a herculean task for the government due to nurses’ significant exodus to Western countries for better work services. According to Yakubu et al. (2023), more than 20% of the nursing workforce has left the shores of Nigeria in the last couple of years. For example, the National Association of Nigerian Nurses and Midwives (NANNW) report affirmed that over 57,000 nurses left Nigeria between 2017 and 2022 (Almendral & Isine, 2023). This leads to a shortage of nurses and challenges in delivering quality healthcare. Chimereze and Okafor (2020) identified the challenges that influence retention and precipitate nurses’ expedition to Western countries, including poor working conditions, inadequate compensation, security concerns, poor infrastructure and equipment, poor remuneration and limited career advancement opportunities. Going further, Nnadozie et al. (2022) identified psychological factors such as psychological ownership and perceived insider status as precipitating factors that could influence the intent to stay in Nigeria.
Thus, in the Nigerian healthcare context, psychological ownership, perceived insider status, and intent to stay can be vital in addressing the healthcare system’s unique cultural and institutional nuances. It can be affirmed that an individual’s ownership feelings are universally observed in all human entities or societies (Brown, 1991; Martinović & Verkuyten, 2024), and this notion arises from the cultural ideology and traits of the individual environmental context. However, fostering psychological ownership and perceived insider status can enhance retention, motivation, job satisfaction, commitment, and cultural diversity. This is evident since psychological ownership reflects the feeling of employees’ possessiveness or responsibility toward their jobs or the organization. Giving healthcare professionals (nurses) more control over their work (e.g., decision-making in patient care), inclusive leadership and professional development opportunities can lead to a stronger sense of ownership (De Smet et al., 2022). In Nigeria, where hierarchical structures are prominent, allowing more autonomy at different levels can promote psychological ownership. For example, nurses can be given more decision-making power within their scope of practice, fostering ownership of outcomes and value.
Corollary, Nigeria is culturally diverse, with healthcare workers (e.g., nurses) from different ethnic, linguistic, and religious backgrounds. Ensuring inclusivity across these cultural dimensions by recognizing and respecting diversity can enhance perceived insider status, psychological ownership and intent to stay among such nurses. These psychological factors can aid in addressing cultural diversity in the healthcare sector by facilitating perceived insider status, psychological ownership, and retention of employees. By focusing on psychological ownership and perceived insider status, Nigerian healthcare organizations can create a sense of personal responsibility and connection among nurses, build inclusion across different professional levels and cultural backgrounds, enhance job satisfaction and increases intent to stay, even in resource-constrained environments.
Thus, nurses’ proficiency and retention are sacrosanct in maintaining a holistic healthcare system that will meet health-related needs (Faraji et al., 2017; Qian et al., 2024). This is pertinent because of the decline in nurse strength availability, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (Engeda et al., 2014). For example, the ratio of nurses to patients, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, is 0.65 per 1,000 population, below the recommended WHO standard of 2.2 (Engeda et al., 2014) and has tripled recently.
Specifically, there needs to be a way to facilitate nurses’ stay to maintain a quality healthcare system, coupled with the recent global Coronavirus pandemic, which makes it essential that research efforts be put into understanding why nurses may choose to either stay or leave their professions. Thus, intent to stay forms the fulcrum the present study revolves around. Nnadozie et al. (2022) posit that intent to stay in work can be due to social, organizational, psychological or physical aspects inherent in the job. Unfortunately, the rate at which employees leave their present jobs in the context of this study is alarming.
Nurses’ intent to stay refers to their decision to remain in their nursing profession until retirement (Nnadozie et al., 2022). According to Sánchez-Cardona et al. (2021) and Al-Hamdan et al. (2017), intention to stay refers to an individual’s commitment or willingness to remain in a particular situation, such as a job, relationship or location. The concept of intent to stay has been investigated from several perspectives within the management field, resulting in an unclear distinction between intent to stay and similar constructs like propensity to stay or leave (Effendi et al., 2019). For example, whether the nurse’s intent to stay is within the current position (Cowden & Cummings, 2012), the present organization (Washeya, 2018) or within the nursing profession (Al-Hamdan et al., 2017) as a whole lacks clarity. Based on the above proposition, intent to stay in the current study will be considered the nurse’s perceived inclination to stay within the nursing profession.
However, more research is needed to explore and advance our knowledge of the effects of these events. This is pertinent because work on intent to stay is still imperative in the contemporary dynamic work context (Lay et al., 2023); hence, identifying avenues to strengthen the impact of intent to stay among workers is apt in the competitive work environment to maintain continuity. Nnadozie et al. (2022) asserted that while intent to stay is important in an organizational context, how the endogenous and exogenous factors precipitate it still needs to be addressed (Silva et al., 2023). Thus, exploring the endogenous factor (perceived insider status) and mechanism influencing intent to stay, such as psychological ownership, is necessary. This is pertinent because the contextual organizational environment of nurses is different from the business environment. Thus, there is a need to explore the endogenous and exogenous factors that influence such organizational context. However, the present study has strived to address how intent to stay can be enhanced by exploring the mediating role of psychological ownership (exogenous factor) in the relationship between perceived insider status (endogenous factor) and intent to stay.
Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development
Theory of Planned Behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) provides the theoretical background for understanding intent to stay in specific contexts. The theory explains human behavior by examining the relationships between beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and actual behavior. According to the TPB theory, decisions and actions result from rationally evaluating the tendencies and values of perceived outcomes regarding alternatives. This implies that the tendency of individuals to engage in a course of action invariably depends on such people’s intentions to act or perform it (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Thus, intention influences behavior, which is determined by three tenets or components—attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Attitudes refer to individuals’ positive or negative evaluations of a particular behavior. In the context of intent to stay, individuals’ attitudes toward staying at work play a crucial role because positive attitudes toward work outcomes, such as benefits, rewards, and experiences associated with staying, can lead to a stronger intent to stay (Okwurume & Sunday, 2024).
Conversely, negative attitudes, such as dissatisfaction or discomfort, may weaken the intent to stay. Corollary, subjective norms, which refer to perceived social pressures or expectations surrounding a behavior, encompass the influence of significant others, such as friends, family, colleagues, or community members, on an individual’s decision to stay or leave. Thus, when employees perceive that staying aligns with the expectations or approval of significant others, their intent to stay may be reinforced. Conversely, the intent to stay may weaken if social influences encourage leaving. Furthermore, the intent to stay of individuals in their jobs is being precipitated by perceived behavioral control. Perceived behavioral control refers to individuals’ beliefs about their ability to perform a behavior successfully, reflecting individuals’ confidence in their capacity to cope with challenges, obstacles, or changes within the work situation. Thus, when individuals feel they have the resources, skills, and support necessary to navigate difficulties and thrive in the environment, their intent to stay may be strengthened. Conversely, their intent to stay may diminish if they perceive a lack of control or foresee insurmountable barriers.
In line with TPB theory, intentions represent individuals’ readiness and willingness to engage in a behavior, which indicates a commitment to continue despite potential challenges or temptations to leave. Such intentions being influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are the basis for retention. By examining these components within the framework of intent to stay, it could be contended that when individuals hold positive attitudes, perceive social approval for staying, and feel capable of managing the situation, their intent to stay is likely higher. The predictive and explanatory role of the TPB has been investigated in many aspects of social and organizational behavior, including behavior modification (Asare, 2015), academic performance (Kyle et al., 2015) and work outcomes (Nickell & Hinsz, 2023).
Furthermore, Qian et al. (2024) and Tourangeau and Cranley (2006) highlighted some factors that precipitate intent to stay, such as social identity, personal characteristics, organizational commitment of nurses, job satisfaction, burnout, work group cohesion and collaboration and manager’s ability and support. Aligning with this is the profound impact of the social identity model. The model is instrumental in fostering a sense of belonging, as it can be linked to psychological constructs like psychological ownership, perceived insider status, and intent to stay within organizational settings. Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) posits that individuals derive a sense of identity and self-esteem from the groups they belong to based on group memberships, such as organizations, teams, or work groups. Thus, employees develop social identities in organizational settings based on their affiliation with the company, department, or team, influencing their attitudes and behaviors (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Identification with the organization or group fosters psychological ownership. This manifests as a sense of “this is mine” regarding one’s role or workplace. For instance, employees who see themselves as integral group members feel more personally responsible and connected to the organization’s success. In the same vein, individuals’ perception of belonging to the “inner circle” of the organization reflects how much such employees feel included and valued. The more strongly employees identify with the organization, the more they feel like insiders rather than outsiders. Thus, employees with high perceived insider status are more likely to engage in positive organizational behaviors, like taking initiative, showing loyalty, and going beyond their job roles, which encourages retention. Furthermore, social identity theory suggests that individuals with strong social identities within their work environment tend to have a higher intent to stay. This is pertinent because when employees feel they are part of the in-group, they are more likely to develop an emotional attachment to the organization and its goals, increasing their intent to stay. Hence, identification with the organization facilitates perceived insider status and psychological ownership, which increases commitment and employee retention.
Substantial evidence supports nurse intent to stay as the strongest predictor of nurses’ retention (Ahmed et al., 2017; Al Zamel et al., 2020). These findings indicate that many psychological variables and processes influence the decision to stay or leave the job (Vancalares & Charez, 2024). However, extant studies on intent to stay were mainly conducted in Western societies (Al Zamel et al., 2020; Bellamkonda et al., 2021; Fong et al., 2021; Jung, 2011), with only a few done in the neglected context of Africa. Nonetheless, there needs to be more research in this neglected context, like Africa, since cultural context influences the intention to stay, as suggested by cross-cultural studies (Fong et al., 2021).
Additionally, knowledge of nurses’ intent to stay and related factors are needed to guide the development of policies to recruit and retain nurses in the healthcare sector. Only with this knowledge will healthcare organizations be able to design and implement effective interventions to retain nurses. Thus, this present study seeks to address this gap in the trans-cultural transportability of evidence by investigating the mechanism through which psychological ownership influences perceived insider status and intent to stay among nurses in a neglected African context like Nigeria.
Literature Review
Perceived Insider Status and Intent to Stay
For nurses to remain in their profession, the concept of perceived insider status is inevitable (Chiao et al., 2021). This is pertinent because it represents that nurses have earned a “personal space” and acceptance inside their work organization. Perceived insider status refers to the extent to which an employee perceives himself or herself as an insider within a particular organization, which implies an employee’s perception of their identity. Aligning with the above definition, Stamper and Masterson (2002) further pointed out that perceived insider status signifies that employees have earned a “personal space” and “acceptance” inside their work organization as members of the organization. Stamper and Masterson (2002) postulated that this “personal space and acceptance” in the organization could create a feeling of closeness for employees, which could help employees develop an accepted feeling by other internal members and even make employees devote themselves and increase their perception of belonging to such an organization. Invariably, this represents a sense of belonging, integration and being coopted into the organizational structure (Xiao et al., 2020).
Furthermore, while perceived insider status has been studied in Western and culturally diverse contexts (Caron & Asselin, 2019; Guo et al., 2020), it has received less attention in African contexts (Edem et al., 2017). Its investigation in a less researched and diverse context is sine-qua-non because it indicates successful integration in the work context (Kim et al., 2019).
Drawing from the inducement-contribution model (Jonsson, 2002) suggests that perception of inducements such as economic inducement—pay, benefits; human capital development—training and advancement opportunities; participation in decision-making; and social-emotional support invariably contributes to and fosters insider status. This implies that when organizations provide such inducements to their employees, these employees feel more obligated and committed to the goals of the organization. This is because such inducement passes a signal of belongingness and acceptance. Thus, employees perceive themselves as insiders when the organization reciprocates their commitment by providing such inducements. According to Dai and Chen (2015), such inducement fosters belongingness, “earning a personal space,” and acceptance. Thus, employees with perceived insider status feel they are an essential part of the organization and have a high sense of belonging (Guo et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2019). This is imperative because perceived insider status generates many positive benefits, favoring acceptance of responsibilities, respect of norms, performance, professional satisfaction, retention, wellbeing in the workplace, creativity and organizational citizenship behaviors (Chen & Tang, 2018; Horng et al., 2016). Corollary, perceived insider status reinforces the quality of the social exchange between the employees and the organization (C. Chen & Tang, 2018) and favors fulfilment of the psychological contract (Coyle-Shapiro & Parzefall, 2005).
Therefore, the present study posits that:
H1: Perceived insider status has a positive relationship with intent to stay among Nigerian nurses.
The Mediating Influence of Psychological Ownership on Perceived Insider Status and Intent to Stay
Nonetheless, perceived insider status may significantly influence nurses’ intention to stay. However, it is possible that this will not be happening in isolation. However, for nurses to remain integrated in their profession with the slightest intention of leaving, the mechanism through which perceived insider status relates to the intention to stay needs to be established. Thus, psychological ownership has been identified as a variable mediating nurses’ intention to stay in their profession (Ali & Sagsan, 2021; Smith et al., 2020). It is argued that since psychological ownership can influence nurses’ intention to stay in their jobs, it has been suggested as a potential mediator between perceived insider status and intent to stay among nurses in the current study (Ji et al., 2024).
Psychological ownership (PO) of a job or organization implies an employee feeling of having a stake in the organization because of commitment and contribution, which has implications for policy and practice (Wang et al., 2019). Psychological ownership is the feeling of possession over a target, object, concept, organization, or other person that formal ownership may or may not support (Ji et al., 2024; Pierce et al., 2001). Ownership not only defines the object’s “place of work” but also, more importantly, the owner’s “what your place of work signifies” (Boonsiritomachai et al., 2022). Individuals become interested in the ownership target as an expression of who they are and where they belong (Ong et al., 2024). In line with the dictates of this theory, an individual has a personal stake in the performance of the object, as its performance reflects upon his or her identity (Peng & Pierce, 2015). This leads to a feeling of possessiveness, a desire to retain ownership, which can be manifested positively or negatively, and a mental attachment to the target (Blau et al., 2023; McConville et al., 2016). In the present study, psychological ownership means nurses feeling of possessiveness toward their organizations to the extent of feeling that they own the organization and are willing to go the extra mile towards organizational commitment to ensure sustainable organizational growth and development (i.e., being possessive in the job and sees it as an extended-self).
Leveraging on the regulatory focus theory of psychological ownership (Higgins et al., 1997), the theory is a framework that explores how regulatory focus influences an individual’s experience of psychological ownership. Regulatory focus theory focuses on two distinct motivational orientations: promotion focus and prevention focus. In promotion focus, individuals aim to achieve positive outcomes, aspirations, and advancement through motivation via growth, gains, and pursuing ideals. These factors give an individual a sense of possessing or having a stake in the organization. In contrast, individuals with a prevention focus may develop psychological ownership by emphasizing the potential risks and losses associated with not having control or possession of the target object or entity through maintaining a sense of security.
In line with correlated factors of intention to stay, the theory suggests that people with a promotion focus may develop psychological ownership through positive experiences and gains, emphasizing the potential benefits and opportunities associated with the target object or entity. Individuals may feel a sense of ownership when they perceive positive outcomes such as growth, advancement, aspirations, achievements, or gains associated with the organization. This contributes to developing psychological ownership among such employees (Peng & Pierce, 2015). As such, individuals feel a sense of possessiveness and investment in such a target, which could be an object, task, or organization. Psychological ownership is often associated with the extent to which individuals invest their resources, be it time, effort, or personalization, into the target (McConville et al., 2016). According to Lee and Suh (2015), the subjective feeling of possession is crucial because the perception that the target is “theirs” contributes to psychological ownership. Thus, when individuals make a target uniquely theirs, they feel a stronger sense of connection, possession, identity and belonging, making them more likely to develop a sense of ownership over shared resources.
However, understanding the regulatory focus of individuals within the organization helps facilitate psychological ownership among employees. The theory insights into the feeling that employees possess an ownership stake in the organization, which can facilitate belongingness and identification (Dawkins et al., 2015). Invariably, individuals become invested in the ownership target to express who they are and where they belong. Thus, employees who experience belongingness and identification in their organization feel committed and inclined to stay in their jobs. This suggests that experiencing psychological ownership connotes a feeling of possessiveness and being psychologically tied to the target of ownership, which can be an attachment to individuals, groups or organizations (Pierce & Rodgers, 2004). Hence, psychological ownership will not only have a proximal influence on intent to stay, but it is also likely to mediate the association between PIS and intent to stay.
Furthermore, the reason for advocating that psychological ownership can be a possible intervening variable was hinged on empirical evidence about its potency in navigating unpleasant work attitudes. For example, psychological ownership will not only activate employee feelings of having a stake in the organization and stimulate proximal influence on intent to stay (Nnadozie et al., 2022), but it is also likely to mediate the relationship between PIS and intent to stay.
Therefore, the researchers posit that:
H2. Psychological ownership has a positive relationship with intent to stay among Nigerian nurses.
H3. Psychological ownership mediates the positive relationship between perceived insider status and intent to stay among Nigerian nurses.
Figure 1 depicts the association among the study variables. It shows the expected association between PIS and intent to stay, psychological ownership and intent to stay and the path from PIS through psychological ownership to intent to stay.
Simple mediation model considering psychological ownership as a mediator.
Method
Participants and Procedure
The present study employed a two-wave (time-lagged) design to recruit 515 (4.5% male and 95.5% female) nurses from federal government-owned hospitals in Southeast Nigeria who participated in the study. The participants were sampled using convenience sampling. The participant’s ages span from 27 to 55 years (mean age = 37.44; SD = 6.44) (see Table 1 for demographics). Data for the study were from full-time nurses working in federal government-owned hospitals at two-lagged time measurement intervals of 1 month between the waves using a multi-sectional questionnaire comprising the measurement instruments and demographics of the participants. The researchers employed research assistants (nurses) working in the study area who helped administer copies of the questionnaire to the nurses in their various workplace hospitals. The notion of using nurses from federal-owned government hospitals is because the hospitals represent the highest healthcare provider regarding human resources, federal character, medical technology, quality healthcare, and patient safety (Nnadozie et al., 2022). Thus, the study setting is apt since this category of nurses represents more than 50% of the nursing workforce in Nigeria (Adeloye et al., 2017). Upon administering the instruments, each participant was assigned a unique code identification or number, with instructions to record and keep their assigned code numbers personally for easy remembrance, especially during the second response time lag (i.e., Time 2). However, the Ethics Committee, Department of Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka approved the study. Ethical issues were addressed via anonymity in participants’ responses. All procedures were carried out under the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as amended in 2000. In the first wave (Time 1), data for control, predictor (PIS), and mediating variable (PO) were collected. During the second wave (Time 2), only the participants who participated in the first wave (Time 1) were reached to respond to the survey for the dependent variable (intent to stay). However, out of 620 originally contacted nurses, 570 (91.3%) responses were retrieved at the first wave (Time 1). Thus, from the 570 participants sampled in the second wave (Time 2), only 545 (95.6%) responses were retrieved or returned. By matching each participant’s data using the unique code numbers initially assigned to the participants, the researchers found that 515 responses from the two waves were valid for data analysis. Specifically, 620 copies of the questionnaire were distributed from February to March 2024 based on one-month intervals between each wave. Hence, the participants’ attribution rate from the two waves (i.e., Time 1 and 2) was 87.9%. According to Speer (2000), the one-month interval between the two waves (Time 1 and 2) is adequate to identify the potential effects of the independent variable on the criterion variable. This aligns with Ugwu et al. (2023) finding that short time intervals produce a more significant impact when testing for endogenous or exogenous work attitudes or outcomes.
Demographics.
Measurements
Psychological Ownership
This was measured with a 7-item Psychological Ownership Scale developed by Dyne and Pierce (2004). The items were responded to on a 5-point Likert response format ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Sample items include “This is my organization.” Reliability was reported at .87 (Dyne & Pierce, 2004), and validity by Nnadozie et al. (2022), while Cronbach α for the present study was .75.
Perceived Insider Status
This was measured with a 6-item Perceived Insider Status Scale developed by Stamper and Masterson (2002). It is responded to on a 5-point Likert response format ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Sample items include; “I feel very much a part of my work organization.” The reliability coefficient was reported at .88. (Stamper & Masterson, 2002), while Cronbach α for the present study was .72.
Intent to Stay
This was assessed with 6-item Intent to Stay Scale by Wang et al. (2012), which included items such as “I will consider continuing in the current job as a nurse.” Items were responded to on a 5-point Likert response format ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The reliability coefficient was reported at .79 (Wang et al., 2012), and the validity by Nnadozie et al. (2022), while Cronbach α for the present study was .70.
Measurement Model and Assessment
The measurement model was examined for the variables perceived insider status, psychological ownership and intent to stay using factor loadings, fit indices, Goodness of fit index, Tucker–Lewis index, comparative fit index and root mean square error of approximation. The factor loadings of items in the whole constructs were above 0.7, which is acceptable according to Tavakol and Dennick (2011). The fit-indices value were within the acceptable threshold according to Somers et al. (2003) via (χ2/df = 2.209, goodness of fit-index [GFI] = 0.840), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = 0.917, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.925, and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.051. The reliability and validity of the variables under study were examined, which shows that the factor loadings, Cronbach alpha, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and composite reliability (CR) were above 0.7 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Equally, convergent and discriminant validity were examined to establish construct validity, which showed an acceptable value of AVE above 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Thus, the results showed a good reliability and validity index, comparable to previous studies, devoid of standard method error bias.
Data Analysis
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to examine correlations among the demographic variables. The mediation analysis was performed using the PROCESS macro for SPSS model 4 version 27. The model included intent to stay as the criterion variable, perceived insider status as the predictor variable and psychological ownership as the mediating variable. The confidence intervals were calculated using 5,000 sample bootstrapping.
Results
Table 1 depicts the participants’ demographics in frequency and percentage.
The average mean age of the participants was 37.44 years (SD = ±6.44 years; range 27–55 years). Approximately 4.5% were males, while 95.5% were females. For marital status, 19.6% were single, while 80.4% were married. For educational qualification, 91.8% had BSc Nursing, while 8.2% had MSc Nursing.
Correlation coefficients are depicted in Table 2, which shows that gender, age, work experience, and education were entered as covariates. As observed in Table 2, gender was positively related to age (r = .18, p < .001) and work experience (r = .16, p < .001), but gender-related negatively with education (r = −.17, p < .001), perceived insider status, (r = −.09, p < .05) and intent to stay among nurses (r = −.10, p < .05). Older age correlated more to work experience (r = −.69, p < .001), perceived insider status (r = .13, p < .01), perceived over qualification (r = .11, p < .03) and intent to stay among nurses (r = .10, p < .05). Work experience was positively related with education (r = .19, p < .001), perceived insider status (r = .19, p < .001), psychological ownership (r = .09, p < .05) and intent to stay among nurses (r = .12, p < .001). Education was positively related to perceived insider status (r = .16, p < .001) and intent to stay among nurses (r = .24, p < .001). Marital status was not significantly related to any of the independent and dependent variables in the study. Perceived insider status correlated positively with intent to stay among nurses (r = .37, p < .001) and psychological ownership (r = .16, p < .001). Psychological ownership was positively correlated with intent to stay (r = .29, p < .001).
Means, Standard Deviation, and Correlations of Demographic Factors, Perceived Insider Status, Psychological Ownership, and Intent to Stay Among Nurses.
Note. N = 515.
p < .001. **p < .01. *p < .05.
Table 3 depicts the estimated regression coefficients. Results in Table 3 showed that only education correlated positively with intent to stay (β = 1.161, 95% CI = [0.666, 1.657] p < .001) among the covariates. For the direct effects, Perceived insider status (PIS) has a significant positive effect on intent to stay (ITS) (β = 0.495, 95% CI = [0.360, 0.630] p < .001) supporting H1. Psychological ownership (PO) has a direct significant positive effect on intent to stay (β = 0.301, 95% CI = [0.208, 0.394] p < .001) supporting H2.
Mediating Effect of Psychological Ownership on the Relationship Between PIS and Intent to Stay.
Source. Authors work.
Note. PIS = perceived insider status; PO = psychological ownership; ITS = intent to stay. R2 = 24%.
p < .001.
On the indirect effect, the indirect effect of PIS on intent to stay through psychological ownership (PO) showed that the interaction was statistically significant (β = 0.040, 95% CI = [0.019, 0.062] p < .001), hence supporting H3. All the variables in the regression model accounted for 24% of the variance in intent to stay among nurses (R2 = .24, F [6, 508] = 25.95, p < .001).
Discussion
The present study aimed to examine the mediating role of psychological ownership in the association between perceived insider status and intent to stay. Results of the current study indicated that perceived insider status positively correlated with intent to stay. The result explained that employees who perceive themselves as insiders of a given organization spur action that brings out the best in one to ensure that all goal-oriented tasks are fully accomplished. This is in line with the findings of previous studies (e.g., Caron & Asselin, 2019; Guo et al., 2020; Xiao et al., 2020; Yin et al., 2021), which reported that perceived insider status is related to intent to stay. This suggests that the perception of insider status gives a sense of belonging, identification, and integration within the organization. Hence, a nurse who perceives herself/himself as an insider in the workplace will not only exhaustively give his/her best to ensure the patient’s quick recovery but will also sacrifice her/his time, sleep, and happiness to buttress the efficacy of the organization mission and vision by staying put in the job. In other words, nurses with a higher perception of insider status are less likely to express the intention to leave the organization (Nnadozie et al., 2022). This is pertinent because the higher the social exchange between the employees and the employer, the greater the likelihood of the employee’s perception of the organization as an extended self, which encourages intent to stay. The above assertion aligns with Yin et al. (2021) view that perceived insider status facilitates employee-oriented corporate social responsibility and unethical pro-organizational behavior. This is due to employees’ perception of a sense of belongingness as a result of the fact that such employees have earned a “personal space” and “acceptance” inside their work organization as members of the organization.
In line with our hypothesis, psychological ownership positively correlated with intent to stay among nurses. This implies that an increase in psychological ownership (i.e., the feeling of possessiveness) was highly associated with nurses’ intent to stay in their jobs. This is consistent with the findings of previous studies (e.g., Ali & Sagsan, 2021; Y. S. Chen et al., 2021; Joo, 2020; Olckers et al., 2019), which reported a positive correlation between psychological ownership and intent to stay. This result is apt because employees who consider the organization “theirs” exhibit the feeling of possessiveness in the work environment, such as commitment, taking charge, innovation, organizational adaptability, identification, citizenship behavior, and inclusiveness towards job requirements to facilitate organizational goal attainment and job enrichment. For instance, in the Nigerian healthcare system, fostering psychological ownership among nurses mitigates cultural bias and institutional nuances, which hinder their retention. In line with this, Martinović and Verkuyten (2024) asserted that psychological ownership facilitates primo-occupancy and investment, which fosters intention to stay among employees. Thus, high levels of psychological ownership may lead to increased engagement, motivation, and commitment among nurses (Jakada et al., 2021). This contributes to a positive work environment and increases their intent to stay. Thus, feelings of possession increase the pursuit of team goals and investment of time and energy, eventually enabling people to learn more about the organizational interest, promoting feelings of control and encouraging intent to stay (Yttermyr & Wennberg, 2021). This can only be achievable when employees feel a sense of social identity and “ourness” by considering themselves as owners of such an organization. In other words, nurses treated with a high sense of belongingness in a hospital will not only consider themselves an integral part of that hospital but work tirelessly to keep the organization.
In addition, psychological ownership mediated the relationship between perceived insider status and intent to stay. The result of the present study is in line with previous research findings (e.g., Chai et al., 2020; Jakada et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2019), which found psychological ownership as a recipe for enhancing employee retention. Additionally, a comparison for cross-cultural validation could be evidenced from a systematic review study conducted by Zhang et al. (2021) that found that psychological ownership had an incremental validity above other positive work outcomes in predicting employees’ work outcomes, such as retention. Thus, psychological ownership suggests that having a stake in an organization influences the decision to stay. This is pertinent because when employees receive substantial organizational support, it boosts their possessiveness, promoting vigorous work commitment that facilitates intent to stay (Chang et al., 2022). For instance, an employee who identifies with an organization whose goal is to enhance and facilitate employees’ wellbeing and satisfaction considers the organization an extended self and will go the extra mile to engage actively in collaborative work activities to ensure sustainable organizational success. Similarly, Martinaityte et al. (2020) asserted that psychological ownership encourages employee creativity, improves proficiency, and enhances the sense of belonging since employees see the organization as an extended self. Thus, the proximal influence of psychological ownership as a link to perceived insider status and intent to stay must be considered in retention literature.
Implications of the Study
From a theoretical approach or perspective, the study encourages a more holistic approach to understanding employee retention by considering psychological constructs such as perceived insider status and psychological ownership, which go beyond traditional economic and job-related factors. This underscores the importance of context-specific theorizing, demonstrating that constructs like PIS and PO can have unique manifestations and impacts within different professional settings, such as nursing. Thus, the integration of Perceived Insider Status (PIS) and Psychological Ownership provides a theoretical linkage between PIS and PO, suggesting that feeling like an insider in an organization can lead to a heightened sense of ownership over one’s role and the organization itself. This relationship adds depth to our understanding of how employees’ perceptions of their organizational status influence their psychological experiences at work. In addition, identifying psychological ownership as a mediator in the relationship between perceived insider status and intent to stay advances theoretical models by highlighting the mechanisms through which PIS influences retention. This mediation effect provides a more nuanced understanding of the pathways through which organizational integration affects employee retention. These findings extend the existing organizational theoretical framework by incorporating PIS and PO as critical antecedents that can explain variations in organizational commitment and intent to stay and significantly influence how much employees feel like insiders and psychologically own their roles.
From an empirical perspective, the study provides empirical support for the psychological ownership theory by demonstrating its relevance and applicability in the nursing profession.
The finding revealed that psychological ownership significantly mediates the association between perceived insider status and intent to stay. This suggests that psychological ownership portrays a pathway for enhancing intent to stay among workers. By identifying perceived insider status as an antecedent to psychological ownership and intent to stay as an outcome, the study adds to the literature on the antecedents and outcomes of psychological ownership, reinforcing its importance in organizational behavior. This is pertinent because it facilitates a sense of belonging, identification, and integration within the organization. Hence, organizations should develop strategies to improve nurses’ perception of insider status. Such strategies include inclusion in decision-making, voice behavior, and fair distribution of human resource practices like staff training and development and skill acquisition.
From a practical perspective, healthcare organizations should focus on strategies that make nurses feel like integral members of the organization. This can be achieved through inclusive practices, participatory decision-making, transparent communication, regular recognition of contributions and achievements, robust support systems, job autonomy and empowerment, professional development, positive work culture, mentorship and feedback mechanisms. Hence, leveraging on these strategies will help create policies and programs that enhance perceived insider status and psychological ownership among nurses, ultimately improving retention rates. This is pertinent because such strategies foster a sense of belonging and ownership among their teams, enhancing overall job satisfaction and commitment.
Finally, from a policy perspective, policymakers can use the insights to develop frameworks that support nursing staff, focusing on integration, empowerment, and professional growth, which are critical for retaining skilled nurses. Therefore, emphasizing a culture that values each member’s contribution and fosters a shared sense of purpose can increase retention through enhanced perceived insider status and psychological ownership.
In sum, this study’s implications could guide healthcare organizations in developing strategies to enhance nurses’ perceived insider status and psychological ownership. Organizations can improve nurse retention and overall organizational effectiveness in the healthcare sector by understanding these dynamics.
Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study
The present study has some limitations, irrespective of its valuable contributions to the intent-to-stay literature. The study sample is limited to nurses in Southeast Nigeria; thus, generalizing the findings may be limited to broader regions and populations, such as those of other healthcare professions. Therefore, it is essential to consider including other regions and samples across different countries and contexts for more apt generalization.
Equally, the use of self-report measures is prone to desirability error. However, using a two-wave design in the present study cushioned such an effect. This is because the design allowed different time intervals to elicit responses on variables of interest, facilitating causality. Thus, the present design involving a two-time lag helped determine the association patterns among the study variables, thereby eliminating standard method bias errors. Although the present study used a convenience sampling method, which may introduce bias, future studies could explore randomized sampling techniques to enhance generalizability. Furthermore, future studies should consider other potential variables such as job satisfaction, organizational support, personality, values, or personal circumstances. Also, the inclusion of additional controls, such as organizational characteristics or external stressors, could provide more depth to the findings that could shape nurses’ perceptions and decisions about intent to stay.
Conclusion
The current study findings showed that perceived insider status and psychological ownership contributed positively to nurses’ proclivity to stay in their profession. This portrays that nurses who perceive themselves as insiders within their organization and have a feeling of possessiveness and connection are more likely to feel valued and integral to their workplace. Therefore, such employees are more committed and less likely to leave their jobs. In addition, psychological ownership significantly mediated the relationship between perceived insider status and intent to stay. This means that the positive effect of perceived insider status on intent to stay is partly because nurses who feel like insiders develop a sense of psychological ownership over their work.
The researchers concluded that enhancing nurses’ perceived insider status could be a strategic approach to increasing their intent to stay within the organization. Fostering an environment where nurses feel valued insiders can increase psychological ownership, enhance commitment, and reduce turnover intention rates. Healthcare organizations should focus on strategies that bolster perceived insider status and psychological ownership to retain nursing staff effectively.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the management of hospitals and nurses used in this study.
Authors’ Contributions
EEN: Conceptualization, project administration, resources, methodology and writing of the original draft, review and editing. OOI: Draft, formal analysis, software, validation, review and editing. LIU: Conceptualization, supervision, methodology, review and editing. Software, methodology, formal analysis.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Ethical Approval
Approval No. D.PSY.UNN/REC/2023-4-1RB00027. All procedures followed were under the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000 (5).
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study will be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.