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Abstract

This study explored the psychological changes, adaptation processes, and paradigm shifts experienced during self-quarantine. It collected data through in-depth interviews with 19 participants. Using the phenomenological method, it observed that negative psychological changes—such as fear, remorse, a sense of claustrophobia, and uncertainty—and health-related anxiety were common during self-quarantine. Additionally, when looking at life during self-quarantine, it was confirmed that there were restrictions on leisure pursuits, psychological recovery period, and social support. Finally, it was possible to establish new experiences through a paradigm shift toward digital life in limited circumstances. The results provide fundamental data by phenomenologically analyzing change under unique pandemic circumstances.

Plain language summary

This study explored the psychological changes, adaptation processes, and paradigm shifts experienced during self-quarantine. It collected data through the interviews with 19 participants. It observed that negative psychological changes—such as fear, remorse, a sense of claustrophobia, and uncertainty—and health-related anxiety were common during self-quarantine. Additionally, when looking at life during self-quarantine, it was confirmed that there were restrictions on leisure pursuits, psychological recovery period, and social support. Finally, it was possible to establish new experiences through a paradigm shift toward digital life in limited circumstances.

Keywords

leisure activities self-quarantine quality of life Korea COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 crisis has emerged as an attack on human beings and society, extending beyond individuals’ health problems (United Nations, 2020). The crisis has severely impacted the social system, including medical health, public security, and the economy. It has also caused fundamental changes in individuals’ daily and social lives (Chesbrough, 2020; Kirk & Rifkin, 2020; Sheth, 2020). Moreover, people’s psychological health worldwide is at risk owing to fear of the unpredictable and persistent nature of COVID-19, which can infect anyone and spread quickly and invisibly. High-intensity social distancing was practiced worldwide as human contact and droplet transmission was identified as the main pathways for COVID-19 spread. However, social distancing affects an individual’s quality of life and increases anxiety and depression (Ferreira et al., 2021).

The COVID-19 pandemic is associated with pain, anxiety, fear of infection, depression, and insomnia (Sher, 2020; Shin et al., 2019). In the United States, the prevalence of depressive symptoms has more than tripled during the pandemic. Relatively high rates of symptoms of anxiety (6.33%–50.9%), depression (14.6%–48.3%), post-traumatic stress disorder (7%–53.8%), psychological distress (34.43%–38%), and stress (8.1%–81.9%) have been reported in the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic in China, Spain, Italy, Iran, the US, Turkey, Nepal, and Denmark. Several depressive symptoms are related to individual stress factors, such as limited social and economic resources and the risk of unemployment.

A study of the psychological effects of a previous large-scale epidemic—the SARS outbreak—revealed severe psychiatric problems and increased self-blame in young people (Sim et al., 2010). This finding gained more support in the context of the current pandemic, particularly as it has been reported that self-quarantine causes high levels of anxiety, anger, confusion (Brooks et al., 2020), depression, mood swings, irritability, insomnia, inattention, anger, and post-traumatic symptoms (Rubin & Wessely, 2020). Additionally, many studies revealed that fear, worry, helplessness, and stigma are among the emotional impacts experienced during the pandemic (Schimmenti et al., 2020). These emotional effects on individuals are further exacerbated by the closure of schools and businesses, family members put at risk, and concerns about economic survival (Van Bortel et al., 2016). As such, this international public health emergency requires the development of strategies to mitigate its damaging psychological impact on individuals (C. Wang et al., 2020).

Self-quarantine—a form of self-isolation, an established public health measure to combat infectious diseases (Day et al., 2006)—was implemented worldwide to prevent the spread of COVID-19, as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO; Farooq et al., 2020). In South Korea, with the increased COVID-19 cases, it became mandatory for those who had close contact with confirmed cases or inbound travelers who entered the country from abroad to self-quarantine from the day of entry until midnight of the 14th day following entry (Korea Central Disaster Management Headquarters, 2021). While a 14-day self-quarantine is essential to prevent infectious diseases, spending time alone in a limited space for a long time is challenging.

In a pandemic, self-quarantine is an unfamiliar experience for people and can cause personal emotional problems (Pfefferbaum & North, 2020) and psychological experiences, such as stress, depression, insomnia, fear, and confusion (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2020). This suggests the need to confirm the psychological role of self-quarantine. Furthermore, imposing restrictions on daily life and social activities during quarantine can cause stress, anxiety, and, eventually, loss of confidence in life, leading to mental health problems (Ye et al., 2020). Quarantined people suffer from significant mental health problems owing to the anxiety of being infected with a virus and transmitting it to others (Brooks et al., 2020). Chuene et al. (2023) applied a qualitative research design to determine how COVID-19 affected students’ mental health during quarantine and isolation. This study revealed that participants experienced behavioral changes during quarantine, including irregular sleeping patterns, difficulty in sleeping, and decreased appetite. The study also highlighted the coping techniques used by the participants during their quarantine and isolation periods. Perez-Carbonell et al. (2020) found that the impact of COVID-19 on mental health was most strongly associated with increased difficulty falling asleep, sleep disturbance, nightmares, and daytime sleepiness.

From an epidemiological perspective, self-quarantine is an effective non-drug method to reduce local infections and prevent or alleviate the spread of infectious diseases. However, it has various side effects, including increased psychological distance, loneliness, panic disorders, and decreased physical activities and productivity, necessitating solutions that promote mental and physical activities (Brooks et al., 2020).

The study examined the following research questions: First, what is one’s psychological state during self-quarantine? Second, how is life accomplished during self-quarantine, and is there any change? It focused on actual experiences to address these questions, and sought to expand the understanding of, and implications for, leisure participation.

Data and Methods

For analysis, this study used the phenomenological qualitative research method to reveal the essential characteristics and structure of human experiences, and explore their meaning and essence (Kim, 2012). Through this method, it tried to understand psychological changes and leisure life through self-quarantine experiences.

Phenomenological Qualitative Research

This qualitative research method is used to study human experiences, especially lived experiences (van Manen, 1990). van Manen (1990) discussed the nature of phenomenological qualitative research from five perspectives: (1) explores human experiences (lived experiences) and classifies them as special experiences; (2) elucidates phenomena as they appear in our consciousness, given that all experiences revealed to our consciousness can be subject to phenomenological research methods; (3) studies the nature and structure of experiences, by not simply describing the experience but exploring the elements that caused them; (4) describes the meaning of experience as we experience it, by focusing on a descriptive approach and undertaking a detailed description and interpretation of the experience, and (5) uses scientific procedures and methods. As phenomenological research aims to discover the experiential essence of human existence through an in-depth interpretation of a specific phenomenon, collecting data that can give a deep insight into the content to be studied is essential. Researchers should, therefore, recruit participants who can provide abundant information on their study content, and construct a sample centered on participants, with appropriateness and sufficiency (van Manen, 1990).

Research Participants

This study selected participants who could provide the most accurate information about the study topic using purposive sampling (Creswell et al., 2007), intentionally selected those who had experienced similar phenomena (Sheperis et al., 2010), and met the following two inclusion criteria: only citizens of South Korea who had been notified of self-quarantine due to inbound travel and other reasons, and those who had experienced life under self-quarantine for at least 2 weeks. Participants were selected without restrictions on academic background, occupation, income, or religion. Finally, 24 participants who met these conditions and could perceive and reflect on their leisure experiences during self-quarantine were selected and interviewed. Among them, two did not participate in the study owing to a change of mind after the first meeting, two had difficulty expressing their experiences, and one declined to disclose information publicly after the second meeting. Hence, data from 19 participants were collected and analyzed. Table 1 summarizes their characteristics.

Table 1.

Personal Characteristics.

Participant	Sex	Age	Marital status	Job	Place of self-quarantine	Reason for self-quarantine
A	Female	30s	Single	Company employee	Home	Categorized as a close contact of aconfirmed case
B	Male	30s	Single	Athlete	Home	Inbound traveler from overseas
C	Male	40s	Married	Professor	Home	Inbound traveler from overseas
D	Female	20s	Married	Company employee	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
E	Male	60s	Married	Business owner	Home	Overseas traveler self-quarantiningin China
F	Female	50s	Married	Housewife	Self-quarantine facility	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
G	Female	30s	Married	Company employee	Self-quarantine facility	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
H	Male	30s	Married	Business owner	Self-quarantine facility	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
I	Female	60s	Widow	Part-time Job	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
J	Female	30s	Married	Teacher	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
K	Male	30s	Married	Company employee	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
L	Female	30s	Single	Company employee	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
M	Female	70s	Widow	Housewife	Self-quarantine facility	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
N	Male	40s	Divorced	Company employee	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
O	Female	10s	Single	High school student	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
P	Male	10s	Single	Middle school student	Home	Categorized as a close contact of a confirmed case
Q	Male	20s	Single	Company employee	Self-quarantine facility	Overseas business trip between Koreaand Japan
R	Male	60s	Married	Business owner	Home	Inbound traveler from overseas
S	Female	60s	Married	Housewife	Home	Inbound traveler from overseas

Data Collection and Analysis Method

In-depth interviews were conducted with the participants in cafes and restaurants. Rapport was formed before the interview by casually discussing their daily lives, including their leisure life and current situation. The interviews were conducted between December 2020 and March 2021. Two to three interviews were conducted with each participant, lasting from 60 to 100 min. Before being interviewed, the participants were briefed about the study’s purpose and that the interviews were being recorded, after which their informed consent was obtained.

During the first interview, each participant’s psychological situation during self-quarantine was intensively investigated; during the second, their leisure activities during self-quarantine were confirmed; and during the third, questions were asked about changes in their leisure experiences and lives. The in-depth interview questions included: (1) What psychological experiences did you have after being notified of self-quarantine? (2) What was your lifestyle during self-quarantine? and (3) What was the effect of self-quarantine on your life? The above questions comprised open and non-directive questions, so that participants could fully express their experiences.

The participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time, and that the audio recorder would be turned off for content they did not want on record. Additionally, each participant was given a small gift for showing interest in the study and participating in the interview. During the interviews, nonverbal expressions, such as participants’ facial expressions, gestures, silence, and tears, were noted, and the recordings were transcribed and analyzed after the interviews.

Data were analyzed using Giorgi’s (1985) phenomenological method, and the transcribed data were analyzed in the following four stages:

First, in the overall perception stage, the transcribed portions were read to understand the underlying meaning of the overall content of self-quarantine and leisure life. While doing so, a non-judgmental approach (bracketing) was maintained to deviate from the prior understanding. For this, the researchers tried to be mindful of how prior understanding and assumptions about self-quarantine affect the analysis and description of participants’ experiences. The first author with self-quarantine experience worked using this experience and knowledge. The co-author had no experience with self-quarantine and thus had minimal knowledge. Based on this, the procedure for returning various types of prior knowledge, such as knowledge, preunderstanding, and preconceived notions that the interviewers did not mention, was repeatedly conducted.

Second, in the semantic unit separation stage, the sentences relevant to self-quarantine and leisure experience were underlined according to the research objective. The sentences were selected so that the crucial parts were easily noticeable.

Third, in the academic term variation stage, participants’ experiences were divided into semantic units, and phenomenological reductions were applied to return to their original meanings and explore the meaning of leisure experiences.

Fourth, in the structural integration stage, the participants were arranged chronologically to accurately analyze their meanings by reordering components related to the their self-quarantine and leisure life through creative thinking. By doing so, this study sought to find implications for the participants’ self-quarantine life and leisure experiences. To derive the structure of the meaning, it was verified that the original materials did not change in repetitive situations, and the nature of the structure was identified.

Veracity and Validity of the Study

This study tried to ensure that the researchers’ subjective judgments would not influence the literature review, which examined the topic theoretically (Wasserfall, 1993). In-depth interviews examined the participants’ lives and their everyday experiences. It was conducted according to the method presented by Lincoln and Guba (1985). According to them, determining the methodological accuracy of qualitative studies requires considering factual value, applicability, consistency, and neutrality.

For member checking, the transcribed data were checked for reliability with the participants, who reaffirmed no differences in their intentions. In addition, consistent peer debriefing was conducted to ensure validity. As a result, continuous advice was sought from a professor and doctoral scholar in leisure science to proactively prevent potential errors made by researchers and produce valid results. Triangulation was performed using various documentation, video materials, and social network services (SNSs) to diversify the study. Finally, to ensure veracity and validity, the “phenomenological nod” was verified by discussing the topics and content with two people who did not participate in the study but had briefly experienced self-quarantine.

Results

Figure 1 demonstrates the results of psychological changes and leisure life during self-quarantine. The sub-categories of psychological states and life changes are presented below.

Figure 1.

Phenomenological dimensions of individuals’ psychological statement and leisure during self-quarantine.

Psychological State During the Self-Quarantine Period

Social Perception-Related Fear

Self-quarantine led to secondary damage called the social stigma, owing to excessive anxiety and anger shown by locals to those released from quarantine. Social stigma identifies and separates the owners of socially undesirable characteristics from other members of society. It also refers to forming stereotypes and prejudices against them at the emotional level, behavioral discrimination, and loss of status (Jones, 1984; Link & Phelan, 2001). A stigma like COVID-19 creates an atmosphere where people or groups with certain health problems are judged negatively and criticized. Even with a negative test result, when self-quarantine began, the participants reported that they could not eliminate their fears about their movements and privacy being made public, being criticized for violating quarantine rules unintentionally, and being avoided by others. In 2020, the spread of COVID-19 in South Korea led to hatred towards certain groups, including religious institutions and Itaewon nightclubs (especially for LGBTQ clientele). The religious institutions received a bad reputation, and the sexual orientation of those who visited LGBTQ clubs was disclosed without permission. Participants A and D reported feeling fear because they were classified as close contacts when their co-workers were confirmed to have visited Itaewon clubs.

Even though I did not go to Itaewon clubs, the social perception was so, and at the time, it was a place where confirmed cases could be identified … That was when the social perception was even more unfavorable … That was when people got socially ostracized … (A).

Even if I was not a confirmed case, I was worried about just being in contact … It felt like I did not take proper self-preventive measures. It felt like I was harming other people … I had to dispose of my trash at a designated time … I did not like that my neighbors could see it, and feared that a strange rumor might spread in the community (D).

Study participants G, J, and L were sisters who visited the hospital to see their mother, who was diagnosed with COVID-19 and quarantined. Other participants also explained about experiencing negative social perceptions because they did not properly follow the quarantine rules, even though they did not self-quarantine because of being in contact with certain groups.

My mother collapsed from a myocardial infarction and was rushed to the hospital. It was fine when I first went to the hospital, but suddenly my mother had a fever. So, my mother was tested for COVID-19. A few hours after my mother’s examination, in the whole hospital, it was suddenly aired as “Code Blue.” It was only aired, but I knew that my mother was diagnosed with COVID-19 … I was in tears and scared (G).

Remorse for Causing Possible Harm

The participants’ main concern was remorse for causing harm to their family members and surrounding people who had to get tested for COVID-19 and self-quarantine because of being in contact with them. While each situation was different, the remorse felt for causing harm to those around them was the same.

I do not know where things have gone wrong … My heart was so heavy. ‘If the epidemiological investigation starts after I test positive, what will happen to people whom I have met with?’ I felt sorry for them (A).

I am a person who often goes to and from the airport because of my job. However, I was notified of self-quarantine owing to close contact at the hospital. My family, who was quarantined, went to the airport, hospital, and school, so the public health center contacted me and said that my family was the cause, and that the infection could spread widely in the area. I was afraid that it would happen, and I felt sorry for the people in charge (G).

Feelings of Confinement From Quarantine Life

All the participants went through 14 days of self-quarantine. Although self-quarantine prevents the spread of infectious diseases, spending time in a space excluded from the external world is not easy. All the participants said they felt confined and restless during the quarantine period, equating to feeling imprisoned.

Being confined in my home … my employer told me to work from home, which made it impossible to separate work from life. Being only at home made my body ache. I could not fall asleep because I did not move around … About halfway through the quarantine, on the sixth day, I did not know how I would survive through the rest of the quarantine. When the quarantine ended, I felt that I was coming out of prison and regaining freedom (D).

The frustration caused by the quarantined life was similar even for quarantined persons who had prepared in advance. It was difficult to endure a life cut off from the outside world for a fixed period.

I was quarantined at a hotel because I have a family at home. As I was an inbound traveler, I prepared many activities to be done under self-quarantine … The windows at the hotel did not open so well, and the room was very dry. I felt claustrophobic because of my environment (E).

Uncertainty Over the Self-Quarantine Period

The self-quarantine period lasted at least 14 days. On the 13th day, a person would receive a COVID-19 test. If the result was negative, the self-quarantine ended, but if the result was positive, the person had to return to self-quarantine. The participants reported being worried about the uncertainty of testing positive, as people determined to be in close contact might face additional self-quarantine.

There is a person who was confirmed during the quarantine period nearby. That was terrifying. I was afraid I would be confirmed during the quarantine period. During the quarantine period, I kept coughing, and I was worried. Also, I was quarantined with my 3-year old child, who was too young to wear a mask. It was very difficult for the child to go out, so I was very worried that the quarantine period would be extended (H).

The Reality of Life During Self-Quarantine

Self-quarantine leads to the deprivation of external stimuli and makes life simple and repetitive, lowers individual arousal levels, and induces boredom (Chao et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020), but also gives participants ample time for leisure and serious reflection.

Filling Meaningless Time

Korea’s Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism announced the results of a survey of national leisure, cultural, and artistic activities in 2020. According to the survey, the average daily leisure time since the pandemic began was 3.7 and 5.6 hr on weekdays and weekends, respectively, an increase of 0.2 and 3.7 hr on weekdays and weekends, respectively, compared with pre-COVID-19 times. However, the participants expressed frustration and emptiness because they were unaware of what they could do for 2 weeks in sudden self-quarantine, for which they were unprepared.

I rearranged the furniture almost every two days. I moved the table and sofa. I moved them here, and then there. I kept organizing and cleaning my house … I had plenty of time left even after I spent time sleeping, eating, and working. Since there was no commute time, all kinds of thoughts came to me. I organized my budget and my bank balance, which I did not normally do (J).

Leisure Choices in Constrained Circumstances

The participants who felt frustrated and empty began to think about their past leisure activities. By focusing on and immersing themselves in these, they recognized the importance of leisure activities. In this regard, it was possible to confirm the importance of an interest in leisure activities and education. Furthermore, the participants who had to self-quarantine because they had been abroad reported that they could prepare in advance because they knew they would need to self-quarantine.

I knew that I would have to self-quarantine when I entered South Korea … I made preparations before coming home, so that I could exercise … I usually did home training, but I wanted to do more exercise of better quality, so I bought equipment such as dumbbells and bands. Then, I focused on strength training (B).

I painted during the weekend … I was an art major and had all the materials at home. I painted a lot, bought new materials that I wanted to use and try out. I took pretty pictures of my paintings … The fact that I had leisure activities and hobbies helped me a lot. It was difficult not to lose my daily life. (D).

The Importance of People Around You

Most participants who had to self-quarantine were dominated by negative emotions, such as depression, sadness, and frustration, but said that comfort from family, lovers, and friends was of great help. Self-quarantined people were in extremely stressful situations. As this stress does not have a short-term effect, it can cause continuous pain and difficulties in individuals’ recovery and life. Cobb (1976) said that social support means material and emotional help from family, friends, and others. In addition, social support helps individuals adapt to crisis or change by fulfilling social needs, preventing stress, and psychologically protecting individuals exposed to stressful situations (Wethington & Kessler, 1986). This high level of social support is important because it suggests it can lower stress and increase resilience.

I had to self-quarantine in a separate space in the same house, but my husband was very considerate. When I was told that I had to self-quarantine, I was afraid and scared, but my husband kept telling me that it was okay, and he did all the housework, took care of the dogs, and gave me a big room, so that I could be comfortable. We ate together over video calls, so that I would not have gloomy thoughts, and even after my husband went to work, he kept in touch and helped me a lot. (D)

I had to self-quarantine after arriving from abroad, but I prepared everything in advance, so that my family could live comfortably. Simple cooking utensils were provided, so that it would not be uncomfortable to eat, and a lot of movies and books were kept ready, so that I would not be bored. I have three daughters, and they took turns calling, texting, and sending family photos in real time, so I was able to rely on them a lot. (E)

Paradigm Shifts Toward New Things

The Desire for Social Relationships

Self-quarantine increased the influence of social media, which because of its easy accessibility, is used as a means of social connection in situations where physical movements and behaviors are controlled (Ahmed et al., 2020; Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2020). According to a study by DoubleVerify (2020), as people spent more time at home, the time spent on social media and online content averaged 6 hr 59 min per day, more than double that of the 3 hr 17 min before the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, nearly half (48%) of respondents said they spent more time on social media platforms.

I used social media (like Instagram) a lot on my phone. The more time I spent alone, the more I felt lonely, so I wanted to communicate with the outside world. I often contacted my friends through SNS and DMs and shared what self-quarantine life is like. (D).

I chatted with my friends on Zoom. Each of us ordered what we wanted to eat and shared and played funny videos together. It was awkward at first, but then we became very comfortable (O).

Diversification of Using Digital Devices

Digital transformation, which is well underway in the leisure industry, helped the participants immensely. They reported that they could experience various media and activities through digital platforms during the 2 weeks of self-quarantine. Furthermore, they experienced and consumed media on various digital platforms; subscribed to over-the-top services, such as YouTube Premium and Netflix; and spent time in cyberspace seeking comfort. Enjoying a leisurely life has become more difficult owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to more access barriers to overcome than before. With the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the paradigm shift to digital leisure is rapidly underway.

I was able to endure for two weeks thanks to YouTube. I subscribed to YouTube Premium during self-quarantine. I got very irritated when advertisements came up when I was exercising. I also subscribed to ‘The Reader’ and turned it on before sleeping. But I got furious when an advertisement appeared as I was about to fall asleep, while listening to it. I subscribed to YouTube Premium in two days. I exercised while watching YouTube. I watched all Korean YouTube videos on exercising. I wanted to do something different every day, and watching videos made it fun. I watched some foreign YouTube videos as well, but they were so intensive, that I could not keep up. I missed many things because they were in English. However, I still watched them because the algorithm kept recommending them to me. That is why I prefer YouTube for applications (A).

Everything is possible virtually. What I liked the most was the fact that it became possible to have virtual religious activities. I could make time for prayer easily since it was performed virtually … I prayed early morning daily, which was easy when I was in Korea. I could attend not only weekend prayers but also Wednesday and Friday prayers (E).

Pursuit of Various Activities

The participants reported their interest in new and existing activities increased during self-quarantine. They were allowed to rethink their preferences with more time to focus on themselves than before. Although the types of activities were diverse and there were individual differences, there was a change in the participants’ perception of leisure and their participation behaviors, which was indicated by an increase in individual and passive activities. This time helped them reorganize their emotional and physical energy, which had been exhausted and unstable from COVID-19 anxiety, gain psychological stability, relieve stress, and overcome depression.

I started meditating. I meditated alone for about 30 minutes after exercising and drinking coffee. After that, I stretched a bit and sat on a yoga mat to meditate for about 20 to 30 minutes, just spacing out without listening to anything … [while] sitting on the yoga mat … (C).

I bought a doll-making kit because I was psychologically unstable and wanted to feel a sense of stability. I made ten dolls over the two weeks. It was my first time making dolls, and it was enjoyable. Since it was a simple labor task, it helped me get rid of thoughts (M).

I was somewhat nervous and worried, so I started exercising/home training. I performed 100 squats daily and did more gradually. Eventually, I did 200 a day. I took a break in between and assessed how much I could do at one stretch. I was able to continuously do about 40 to 50 squats and then took a short break. Now, I cannot do it anymore … (N).

Discussion

Identifying psychological and behavioral characteristics in special situations is vital to effectively determine the relationship between behaviors and psychology (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000).

First, negative psychological changes were confirmed among those undergoing self-quarantine, as they had to accept situations they had not experienced. This finding concurs with a previous study (Brooks et al., 2020) that examined people quarantined by infectious diseases, and found that it could induce psychological reactions, such as confusion, anger, and fear, resulting from uncertainty about infection. Various infectious disease-related studies have paid particular attention to fear as it is the most common emotion that people feel. Concurrently, it is a factor that easily affects other emotions, thoughts, and behaviors, such as depression and anxiety (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Pappas et al., 2009). In addition, this finding agrees with a study stating that vague anxieties about an unknown infectious disease, helplessness, and depression in uncontrollable situations accompany COVID-19 because its etiological factors and treatment are unclear (Huang & Zhao, 2020). A meta-analysis of papers on stress, anxiety, and depression in COVID-19 reported that 29.6%, 31.9%, and 33.7% participants experienced stress, anxiety, and depression, respectively (Salari et al., 2020). Y. Wang et al. (2021), reported that people who were isolated during COVID-19 were more likely to experience long-lasting side effects even after the period of isolation and therefore should be continuously monitored. Factors that were associated with an increased level of depression, stress, and anxiety were being single, separated, or widowed, a higher education level, a larger family size, loss of employment, and being in contact with potential COVID-19 patients. According to a study by Novaković et al. (2022), the most prominent themes related to the stressful and negative aspects of the pandemic are restrictions and changes in daily life, emotional distress, work, and finances. Responding to positive pandemic outcomes were themes of reflection and growth, opportunities for meaningful and enjoyable activities, and benefits at the interpersonal level. Key themes identified in participants’ recommendations for coping with the pandemic included beneficial behavioral adjustments, beneficial cognitive-emotional strategies, and social support.

In addition to raising concerns about public health in general, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the number of individuals affected by psychological disorders. Therefore, it is crucial to identify such vulnerable individuals, including those forced to endure isolation, who may be subjected to criticism and discrimination during the epidemiological investigation process as their personal information is publicized against their will (Park, 2021). This social experience finding is similar to previous studies’ findings regarding the persistence of worry and anxiety about infection, and psychological anxiety or depression, that can be caused by stigmatization (Slovic, 2000) when suffering from sickle cell diseases. Additionally, although the COVID-19 pandemic causes a few changes in daily life, it can accompany psychological difficulties (Harper et al., 2021), and has also significantly induced negative psychological reactions (Ko, 2020).

Psychological changes during the pandemic are closely related to changes in life circumstances. Despite an increase in personal useful time, social relationships have relatively weakened as personalization, passive activity, and digitalization changed because of restrictions on face-to-face activities. It is also linked to a decrease in quality or satisfaction with life. This study served as an opportunity to identify the factors that affect emotional stability by understanding the anxiety caused by the spread of infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Maintaining physical and mental health and strengthening social relationships in times of global crisis are also essential to reduce social costs and increase individual happiness.

Second, adaptation to life during self-quarantine was confirmed. Son et al. (2020) found that people utilized a variety of self-care methods to cope with stress and anxiety caused by the COVID-19 outbreak. Coping theory states that coping is the process of assessing anticipated stressors and devising different ways that may be maladaptive or adaptive (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). Although the participants spent their time in a situation for which they were initially unprepared, they gradually experienced psychological recovery by participating in leisure activities or comforting people around them who were in a more restrictive situation. The results revealed that people’s lifestyles inevitably changed during self-quarantine, and various behavioral patterns appeared in areas. This stimulates us to break away from modern society’s “busy” and “fast” cultural characteristics. Additionally, it leads to new interest in leisure possibilities to explore life in the increased available time owing to self-quarantine. It is necessary to examine not only psychological changes, but also changes in physical mobility. Studies on COVID-19 and physical activities indicate that self-quarantining at home considerably affects daily life. As participating in leisure activities positively affects one’s daily stress, depression, anxiety, and pain levels, the importance of leisure activities must be highlighted in situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Leisure can be an effective strategy for coping appropriately with frequent daily stress (Oh et al., 2013). Moreover, participating in leisurely activities plays a role in mediating the effects of stress. In relatively high-stress situations, people with good coping beliefs or strategies that incorporate leisure maintain their health (Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993). Therefore, leisure activities must be examined from ecological and social perspectives because it emphasizes the importance of understanding leisure within the social and cultural contexts surrounding human behaviors (Lee & Park, 2006). Participation in leisure activities effectively alleviates anxieties, such as economic and psychological problems, and helps overcome chronic boredom. It also prevents mental health problems, such as depression, by reducing negative emotions like anxiety and sadness. We estimate that leisure activities have changed due to the interactive aspects of the current situation and the environment in which COVID-19 persists.

In this study, increased participation in existing “old” leisure activities, such as watching movies, reading books, and exercising, was confirmed. This was confirmed by several previous studies conducted in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, Sivan (2020) reported that participants resumed and energized leisure activities, including old hobbies put on hold owing to a busy lifestyle. In de la Barre et al.’s (2020) study, staying at home slowed the pace of life, leading to a renewed interest in leisure. van Leeuwen et al. (2020) reported that during the lockdown, people spent more leisure time with their families than before, and “traditional” forms of leisure were re-evaluated. Lashua et al. (2020) discussed the need for leisure participation in people’s lives at present when anxiety, uncertainty, and fear of disease are increasing owing to COVID-19.

This study reveals the unique process of negotiating leisure experiences and conditions despite leisure constraints during self-quarantine. According to a study by Kang et al. (2022), when it comes to adaptive responses to COVID-19, people first build a positive mindset that buffers negative emotions caused by leisure restrictions. The study participants showed a strong motivation to maintain leisure activities with these positive mindsets. On account of this strong motive, countermeasures were prepared, such as finding other ways to continue to pursue old leisure activities, finding new ones to replace existing ones, or increasing the frequency of participation in old leisure activities. These findings advance our understanding of the process and consequences of negotiating leisure terms. In this study, leisure participation became a driving force to overcome anxiety and difficulties caused by self-quarantine. It was confirmed that the experience of transformation and expansion of thinking through self-examination, even during difficult times, when confined in a specific space, has the resources for facilitating growth.

In situations where quarantine rules were prolonged because of COVID-19, previous studies have reported an increase in the population who experienced Corona Blue symptoms such as depression, stress, and anxiety, as actual leisure activities affect depression, stress reduction, and coping strategies (Sa & Han, 2021; Sa et al., 2021). To actively participate in leisure activities, long-term leisure education must come first, and various leisure policies must be established to ensure that people can confidently enjoy them. Careful judgment and consideration should also precede the influence of leisure industry-related content.

Third, self-quarantine has accelerated digitalization. Using digital devices was widespread before the pandemic, but its role became increasingly essential during the pandemic. A keyword that emerged in society during COVID-19 was “no-contact,” referring to restricted in-person interactions and minimized human contact. Non-contact communication has unusually been evaluated as a core value. It is believed that sharing and communicating personal daily life activities and interests through SNS can help prevent the negative effects of isolation and disconnection. The reduced outdoor or external movements and activities were used as an opportunity to develop various leisure activities and programs using digital technology.

The transition to digital is one of the methods to alleviate the increased depression related to COVID-19. In recent years, online CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) has been shown to have the same therapeutic effect as face-to-face CBT for various mental health conditions. Studies proving this effect are accumulating (Carlbring et al., 2018). Many recent studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of online CBT for various mental health conditions, and it is reported that the treatment effect is the same as that of face-to-face CBT (Carlbring et al., 2018). Reitsma’s (2023) study shows that online CBT led to significant lower symptom-levels of disturbed grief, PTSD, and depression compared to waitlist controls. Furthermore, they reported that during COVID-19, the online CBT yielded large between-group effects for reductions in disturbed grief symptoms, and moderate between-group effects for PTSD and depression symptoms.

In addition, there was an increase in the use of digital devices or services for leisure activities. Although differences in each participant’s activities existed, there was a clear change in behaviors due to the pandemic. In South Korea, leisure time in daily life increased to 4.2 hr because of the prolonged normalization of COVID-19 (Baek et al., 2022). Although leisure time increased, owing to restrictions on activities, the leisure participation method changed to an isolated and digital leisure life. The COVID-19 pandemic emphasized Spielraum (a play space to relax and have leisurely time without being disturbed by others). According to a report titled A Study on Changes in Leisure Behavior of Seoul Citizens in the New Normal Era and Policy Direction Thereto (Baek et al., 2022), the change to an isolated and digital leisure life can be confirmed by differences in thinking about quarantine. Many participants reported a desire to switch to online activities. The group that valued leisure activities had many options to explore activities different from the present, and increase outdoor activities as much as possible. It was also predicted that after COVID-19, although some would return to their pre-COVID lifestyles, they may partially maintain the changed lifestyle.

This discussion expands our understanding of safety and leisure participation. It suggests that a multidimensional approach, including multiple motivations and environmental and individual differences, can be more balanced in measuring factors such as quality of life and life satisfaction in a post-pandemic era. Owing to social distancing and restrictions on face-to-face activities, digital-based non-face-to-face culture rapidly expanded. In addition, online activities have grown significantly amid the progress of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and development of digital technology. Online-based leisure activities provided an emotional escape for those exhausted by the COVID-19 pandemic.

However, previous studies suggest ambivalent effects of online-based activities (Jung & Choi, 2021) that enable new digital-based activities without time and space limitations. This has the positive aspect of further expanding and diversifying one’s existing life. In a virtual community, one can participate in activities without structural or interpersonal restrictions, such as gender, race, or economic levels. Furthermore, there are positive effects, such as skill acquisition, improvements in cognitive manipulation abilities, and increased interpersonal relationships. In addition, many studies confirm that social activities (Facebook, Twitter, and the like) and using smartphones significantly affect perceived loneliness (M. Han & Kim, 2018).

In contrast, monotonous and passive online activities block individuals’ healthy social interactions. However, negative dysfunctions, such as feelings of loneliness, Internet addiction, and deviant behavior, exist, and may adversely affect the quality of life. Therefore, vigilance is necessary because cyber and mobile space activities have negative aspects, such as addiction to specific content or decreased outdoor activities, which may hinder positive socialization (S. J. Han & Cho, 2010).

A balanced culture is needed to reduce the side effects of online activities and use digital devices wisely. In an environment where digitalization surrounds everything, including work and leisure, it is necessary to consider the balance between work and leisure and online and offline life. Ultimately, the question should be how to harmonize online and offline life, and continue participating in leisure, irrespective of whether it is based on online or offline modes. Lastly, since COVID-19 may never disappear, developing a mid-to-long-term virtual social support system and promoting related activities is necessary.

Conclusion

This study aimed to examine individuals’ psychological states during self-quarantine and provide an in-depth understanding of implications of self-quarantine life. The conclusions based on the results of this study are as follows.

First, this study expanded the understanding of behaviors that environmental threats such as self-quarantine and perceived severity can affect previously unreported diversity-seeking behaviors. In particular, the perceived stress caused by COVID-19 plays a major role in deteriorating mental health, and it has been reported that this perceived stress is related to risk factors for deteriorating mental and physical health, including anxiety, depression, and cardiovascular disease (Lee, 2012; Redmond et al., 2013). This study confirmed that participants experienced psychological changes, adaptation processes, and paradigm changes experienced during self-quarantine.

Second, it was confirmed that study participants had limitations in pursuit of leisure, psychological recovery period, and social support through life during self-quarantine. In this limited situation, a new experience was built through a paradigm shift to digital life. Therefore, in the post-COVID-19 era, it is necessary to develop a non-face-to-face social support system and promote related activities. In line with the pandemic era, there is a need to consider solutions such as providing untact programs and customized leisure services to those affected through detailed investigations and studies focusing on region, age, and class. The distancing situation in the pandemic has accelerated the online environment and made it even more essential. In future participation in leisure activities, various ways should be considered with an emphasis on inclusiveness and accessibility of online leisure activities.

Lastly, although COVID-19 has been long-lasting and is currently considerably mitigated, various demands and responses such as “with COVID-19” and “after COVID-19” are emerging, along with questions about the effectiveness of self-quarantine and social distancing. Therefore, psychosocial factors that may undermine psychopathology during ongoing public emergencies must be identified, so that coordinated interventions can be implemented. For an effective response to infectious diseases, the community must be galvanized to provide sufficient social support and safe views, and to accelerate the practice of civic ethics. In particular, new infectious diseases after COVID-19 are highly uncertain even for “experts” such as the government and medical personnel, so citizen sympathy and participation, social support, and care are essential.

Limitations and Suggestions

This study’s limitations and our suggestions for follow-up studies are as follows.

First, this study was limited to exploring the self-quarantine situation, rather than the people infected with COVID-19. Although attempts were made to include participants from diverse gender, age, and socioeconomic groups, observable and unobservable variables may appear differently across the entire population. The results of self-quarantine experiences may differ depending on the environment and individuals’ personal characteristics, such as generation and marital status. Therefore, a follow-up study should consider further subdividing the scope of self-quarantined participants.

Second, this study was conducted in December 2020, about a year after the first confirmed case of COVID-19 in Korea. Environmental changes, such as the number of confirmed cases when participants experienced self-quarantine and the explosive increase in confirmed cases, occurred until November 2021, when this study was finalized. As related policies change sporadically, differences in self-quarantine experiences may exist. Therefore, follow-up studies should compare the time points between present and future studies.

Lastly, this study focused on psychological changes such as individual fears and changes in mind and behavior during the period of self-quarantine. However, the COVID-19 period increased telecommuting, which made it difficult to separate the rest and work spaces. As such, follow-up studies focusing on work-based burnout may relate to other psychological changes in the future. When the post-pandemic enters a new normal era, measures must be taken to bridge the gap.

Footnotes

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Hye Ji Sa and Jee Hoon Han. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Hye Ji Sa, and Jee Hoon Han commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

Studies with no risk or minimum risk are waived from obtaining the Institutional Review Board’s approval in South Korea.

ORCID iD

Jee-Hoon Han

Data Availability

The authors are willing to provide the data upon any request by the editor or the reviewer(s).

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Self-Quarantine in South Korea in 2021

Abstract

Plain language summary

Keywords

Data and Methods

Phenomenological Qualitative Research

Research Participants

Data Collection and Analysis Method

Veracity and Validity of the Study

Results

Psychological State During the Self-Quarantine Period

Social Perception-Related Fear

Remorse for Causing Possible Harm

Feelings of Confinement From Quarantine Life

Uncertainty Over the Self-Quarantine Period

The Reality of Life During Self-Quarantine

Filling Meaningless Time

Leisure Choices in Constrained Circumstances

The Importance of People Around You

Paradigm Shifts Toward New Things

The Desire for Social Relationships

Diversification of Using Digital Devices

Pursuit of Various Activities

Discussion

Conclusion

Limitations and Suggestions

Footnotes

Author Contributions

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

Ethical Approval

ORCID iD

Data Availability

References