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Abstract

This meta-analytic study examines the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention in Thailand and Indonesia. Through the analysis of 22 independent samples consisting of 8,196 participants, the aim is to determine the universal applicability of job embeddedness as a predictor of employee turnover. Using the Hunter and Schmidt method, ensuring methodological rigor and accuracy in the estimation and interpretation of effect sizes, the study finds a significant negative association between job embeddedness and turnover intention (r = −.44). The dimensions of fit and sacrifice are both negatively correlated with employees’ decision to quit (r = −.27 for both), while the dimension of link does not exhibit such a relationship. Organizational embeddedness and community embeddedness are both negatively associated with turnover intention, with organizational embeddedness being a stronger predictor. The moderating effect of gender on the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention is not supported. The study concludes by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of the findings, highlighting the need for further empirical research on job embeddedness and turnover intention in the Southeast Asian context.

Keywords

job embeddedness organization embeddedness turnover intention meta-analytic meta analysis South-East Asia

Introduction

Researchers have long since identified the differences present in managing employees across cultures. According to Purba (2016), two imperative employee behaviors to organizations are employee performance and retention (i.e., turnover behavior). Since high employee turnover causes various direct expenses (recruitment and selection costs) and indirect expenses (loss of morale among remaining employees, loss of competency and knowledge) that could be crucial and expensive to the firm (Dess & Shaw, 2001), it is therefore important to prevent high employee turnover earlier by identifying and reducing turnover intention. One of the most famous theories in the field of organization behavior in trying to predict employee turnover is the job embeddedness theory introduced by Mitchell et al. (2001), who attempt to understand the phenomenon of why employee stay within an organization. Job embeddedness has been proven to reduced turnover (Felps et al., 2009; Tanova & Holtom 2008), suggesting that instead of looking for reasons as to why employees leave, organizations should shift their focus to understand why employees would stay rather than leave (Griffeth et al., 2000). Mitchell et al. (2001) refer to it as an “anti-withdrawal” work state whereby employees become forcibly entangled in an occupational web that makes it undesirable for them to leave the organization (Lee et al., 2004). Since the theory’s debut, many empirical studies have been conducted; the vast majority were undertaken to study organizations in Western countries that tends to have a more individualistic characteristic, while the relationships between these variables have not been extensively empirically tested using samples from Eastern cultures that tend to be more collectivist. The majority of the findings from the West have found similar results; that is, job embeddedness has a negative impact on turnover and turnover intention. Moreover, job embeddedness is a better predictor than conventional variables such as job satisfaction, organization commitment, perceived job alternatives and job search in predicting turnover intention and actual turnover (Holtom & Inderrieden, 2006; Holtom & O’Neill, 2004; Mitchell et al., 2001). However, following the theory’s popularity, empirical studies in Asia have started to emerge and the results are inconsistent. This research answers the call to examine job embeddedness-turnover relationship across cultures (Ramesh & Gelfand, 2010) by investigating samples from Thailand and Indonesia to help bolster evidence and validate the theory utility of job embeddedness in predicting employee turnover.

Job embeddedness introduced three dimensions of variables: fit, link and sacrifice, which apply to both on-the-job and off-the-job dimensions. Job embeddedness explains how employee fit (value correspondence between individuals, the organization and the environment), links (connections with other people in the organization and the environment) and sacrifice (the benefits individuals would forgo were they to leave) promote employee retention and reduce turnover. Different dimensions, however, have been shown to have different impacts on different sample groups across cultures. Ramesh and Gelfand (2010) investigated job embeddedness among employees in the United States and compared it to India. They found that fit factor is most suited to explaining retention in the United States, while the link factor is better in India. The work from Wissawapaisal and Chaiprasit (2015) found that organizational fit had no effect on voluntary turnover intention, whereas link and sacrifice do in a Thai sample in line with the work of Ratnawati et al. (2020), who examined 209 respondents from Indonesia. We can see that many of the findings using Asian samples are not in line with previous work from other Westerners. In addition, Setthakorn (2020) studied the job embeddedness of hotel employees in Pattaya City, Thailand, and discovered that job embeddedness is not a better predictor of turnover than conventional variables. A similar finding is found in the work of Hoang (2018) using Vietnamese samples. These results are contradictory to the West’s work once again. Therefore, these inconsistent finding suggest there are certain important theoretical issues that remain unanswered with respect to the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention when it comes to the South-East Asia context.

Job embeddedness is a novel concept to South-East Asia’s academia. A limited number of studies have been conducted using job embeddedness as an independent variable in predicting turnover and turnover intention. Most of the studies in this field are still largely examining traditional/conventional variables such as job satisfaction and organization commitment on voluntary turnover. There exists only a handful of research that has started collecting job embeddedness results, and since South-East Asian nations possess similar norms and culture it would be interesting to see if the results of job embeddedness on turnover are the same for this region. Although one might conclude researchers have gained a comprehensive understanding of job embeddedness and its effects on turnover intention have been well researched, this study adds to the existing literature by examining how job embeddedness relates to in turnover in the context of more collectivist culture setting. This is accomplished by aggregating South-East Asian samples from Thailand and Indonesia to validate the theory’s validity through a meta-analytic review of whether job embeddedness could be a universally-used construct in predicting employee turnover and turnover intention.

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Job Embeddedness and Turnover Intention Relationship

Job embeddedness is defined as a combination of elements or advantages that can keep a person from wanting to leave their organization (Lee et al., 2004). Mitchell et al. (2001) used the term “spider web” or “constraining forces” to refer to the force that entangles individuals to stay within a given organization and thus make it difficult for them to leave (reducing turnover). The theory used the term embeddedness based on embedded figure theories, suggesting that embedded figures represent individuals’ attachment to the environment in which they are connected with the widest background. In other words, individuals make decisions based not only on themselves but also on the environment that they are part of. Job embeddedness involves three dimensions: fit, link and sacrifice. Each dimension is important both on- and off-the-job. A six-strand construct is used for the theory; this is comprehensive and able to better predict actual turnover and turnover intention than conventional variables such as job satisfaction and organization commitment (Holtom & Inderrieden, 2006; Holtom & O’Neill, 2004).

The more attached (embedded) an employee is, the more difficult it is for them to leave the organization. Consequently, job embeddedness has been shown to have a negative relationship with turnover intention. Most of the research started off with this research hypothesis. The works of Dechawatanapaisal (2018b) and Suruchthanano (2021) support the hypothesis using Thai samples. Similar findings are also supported by the Indonesian sample group (Ananda & Pane, 2017; Ratnawati et al., 2020; Sudarti et al., 2021).

However, some of the paper results stray from the main theory finding. The work of Tantiboontaweewat and Maneesri (2013), studying 660 operational-level employees in the private sector in Thailand, found that job embeddedness did not have a significant relationship with turnover intention. Furthermore, the conventional factors of job satisfaction and organization commitment act as a better predictor of turnover intention for their study. This is in line with the work of Setthakorn (2020). Subsequently, a question is raised concerning the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention for the South-East Asia context. Taking this question on board, this paper attempts to review job embeddedness and the relationship with turnover intention to see if findings are in line with the theory by using Indonesian and Thai data, with an aim of contributing to the job embeddedness literature. The first hypothesis for this paper in validating job embeddedness theory is as follows:

H1: There is a negative relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention for South-East Asia samples.

This paper aims to further examine the strength of job embeddedness compared to conventional variables, specifically whether job embeddedness is a better predictor for turnover intention. The famous work by Crossley et al. (2007) and Felps et al. (2009) found that job embeddedness improves the prediction of voluntary turnover, above and beyond that accounted for by job satisfaction, organization commitment, perceived alternatives and job search—in support of Mitchel et al. (2001). Yang et al. (2011) suggested that there is a rising number of studies comparing the power of job embeddedness to the conventional variables and most of the empirical findings demonstrate that job embeddedness was better able to predict turnover. In other words, it is hypothesized that job embeddedness is a robust predictor of turnover intention and it could be applied across diverse populations (Mallol et al., 2007). To prove the hypothesis, a meta-regression should be carried out. However, given the limited number of studies comparing job embeddedness and conventional variables to turnover intention in South-East Asia (n < 10), the analysis cannot be carried out. As a result of this limitation, further study on this topic should be encouraged within South-East Asia.

Job Embeddedness Dimensions and Turnover Intention

There are three important aspects of job embeddedness, according to Mitchell et al. (2001): (1) how well people FIT into their work environment and in their community; (2) how far people can LINK to their work colleagues and their community; and (3) how much a person will SACRIFICE in terms of both work and the wider community if they leave their job. The stronger these embedding forces, the less likely employees are to leave their workplace; this is because individuals with a higher level of bonding develop more sense of obligation to their occupational web and have more difficulty leaving their organization (Hom et al., 2009).

Very little research has explored when and how the three dimensions of job embeddedness relate to turnover criteria (Jiang et al., 2012). According to the theory, all the three dimensions have a negative relationship with turnover intention. However, studies on job embeddedness dimensions in South-East Asia present inconsistent results. Setthakorn (2019) studied 362 full-time employees from FMCG companies in Thailand found fit and sacrifice demonstrate a negative relationship; however, link does not have any impact on turnover intention. The work of Suruchthanano (2021) investigated 410 revenue department personnel in Thailand, revealing similar findings. However, some of the work found that fit was not a predictor of turnover intention (Sawathwej & Setthakorn, 2019; Wissawapaisal & Chaiprasit, 2015). Additionally, Ratnawati et al. (2020) studied 209 respondents from Indonesia and identified that fit had no effect on voluntary turnover intention. We can thus see there is an inconsistency in the findings when it comes to South-East Asian samples. Therefore, this study extends current research by investigating the relationship among all job embeddedness dimensions on turnover intention to see if similar conclusions can be reached.

H2: There is a negative relationship between job embeddedness, namely (a) Fit, (b) Link, and (c) Sacrifice, with turnover intention for South-East Asian samples.

Organization and Community Embeddedness and Turnover Intention

Fit, link, and sacrifice can apply to both on- and off-the-job situations. As the name suggests, on-the-job is the organizational-related factor, whereas off-the-job refers to the community or other environments outside work. According to Mitchell et al. (2001), employees will be influenced by both dimensions when making a decision to leave. However, researchers have found that the organizational dimension better predicts employee behaviors than the community dimension (Allen, 2006; Lee et al., 2004). Ng and Feldman (2010) also argue that job embeddedness implies organizational embeddedness, since bonding in a particular job essentially attaches an individual to their current organization, rather than to the larger system. Lee et al. (2004) suggested off-the-job embeddedness could be used to predict voluntary turnover and absenteeism, whereas on-the-job embeddedness predicted organizational citizenship behavior and job performance. Furthermore, the results of his study revealed that off-the-job embeddedness significantly predicts voluntary turnover, while on-the-job embeddedness does not. This is supported by works of Allen (2006) and Crossley et al. (2007) with similar findings.

Setthakorn (2020) found organization embeddedness to be a better predictor than community embeddedness when trying to understand the turnover intention of an employee using Thai samples. Similar findings were also found in Popaitoon and Techalertsuwan (2020). However, Purba et al. (2016) found on-the-job job embeddedness to be negatively correlated with turnover intention, but not for off-the-job, in an Indonesian sample; Purba et al. (2015) also found this to be true. Therefore, one could see an inconsistency regarding the effect of organization- and community-embeddedness on turnover outcome (Jiang et al., 2012)

H3: (a) Organization embeddedness and (b) community embeddedness are negatively related to turnover intention for South-East Asian samples.

H4: Organization embeddedness is a better predictor of turnover intention than community embeddedness for South-East Asian samples.

Moderating Role of Gender on Job Embeddedness and Turnover Intention

A growing body of literature has examined the moderating effect of gender on job embeddedness and turnover intention. According to traditional social perceptions, men are more active in the work domain, whereas women are more focused on caring for their family and the community surrounding their family—the non-work domain (Eagly & Koenig 2006; Wood & Eagly 2002). Conservatively, one could suggest women would value the links they have with the organization and communities and possibly bear more emotional costs when they leave their job. A meta-analytic work of Jiang et al. (2012) found gender negatively moderated the on-the-job embeddedness-turnover relationship. However, gender has little influence on the off-the-job embeddedness-turnover linkage. For this study, we would like to examine whether gender could be a potential moderator for the linkages between job embeddedness and turnover intention, where one would expect job embeddedness to be higher in the female-dominated group.

H5: Gender will moderate the negative relationship of (a) job embeddedness, (b) organization embeddedness, and (c) community embeddedness with turnover intention, such that job embeddedness will be more negatively related to turnover intentions in female-dominated samples than in male-dominated samples in South-East Asia.

Methodology

Literature Search and Inclusion Criteria

A collaborative research effort involving a team of researchers from Thailand and Indonesia was undertaken for this study. The analysis encompassed published and unpublished articles written in English, Thai, or Indonesian, including research papers and dissertations. Additionally, reference lists from pertinent review articles and previous meta-analyses were thoroughly examined to ensure comprehensive coverage. For this study, a combination of international and local databases was utilized, taking into account data available up until December 2021. International databases such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, ISI Web of Science, Business Source Premier, Emerald, and ProQuest were accessed and searched. Additionally, local databases in the respective language were included, namely the Union Catalogue of Thai Academic Libraries (UCTAL) and the Thai Digital Collection (TDC). The search terms employed encompassed relevant keywords such as job embeddedness, organization embeddedness, community embeddedness, turnover intention, quit, quit intention, intention to quit, leave, and stay. To supplement the electronic search, a manual search was conducted within the researcher’s university library.

To be included in the analyses, each study had to fulfill several criteria. Firstly, it needed to be an empirical investigation that examined job embeddedness, organization embeddedness, or community embeddedness as a variable of interest. Secondly, the dependent variables had to involve turnover, turnover intention, quit, leave, or stay (reverse coded). Thirdly, the studies were required to provide Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) for the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover. Fourthly, the studies had to report Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for both job embeddedness and turnover. Additionally, a sample size had to be reported to calculate a sample size-weighted effect size. Furthermore, if a sample was used in multiple articles, only the article providing more comprehensive information was considered. Adhering to these inclusion criteria, a total of 22 studies were included in the analysis, with 11 from Thailand and 11 from Indonesia, encompassing a combined sample size of 8,196 (N = 8,196). Appendix A provides a summary of the works considered for this study.

Given that job embeddedness is a relatively new concept for researchers in South-East Asia, the number of available studies may be limited. The minimum number of studies required for a meta-analysis is not strictly defined and can vary depending on the research field and the specific research question being addressed. However, it is generally recommended to include an adequate number of studies to ensure meaningful and robust results. The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, version 6.2, written by Higgins et al. (2021), suggests a meta-analysis is typically not recommended unless there are at least 10 studies included. Including a minimum of 10 studies allows for a more reliable estimation of the overall effect size, reduces the influence of individual study characteristics, and provides a more comprehensive representation of the research field. Therefore, considering 11 studies from each country, 22 in total, it can be considered sufficient for further analysis and meta-analysis can be performed.

Coded Variables

Job embeddedness measures (overall job embeddedness, organization embeddedness, community embeddedness, fit, link, sacrifice) were coded, along with turnover intention, sample size, reliability of each variable, and moderator. Measures of turnover included actual turnover, intention to leave, exit, quit, or stay (reverse coding). Measures of job satisfaction was individuals’ overall satisfaction with their job. For organization commitment, we examined only affective commitment, as this was the most frequently studied commitment construct in most job embeddedness studies (Jiang et al., 2012). We categorized the identified studies into categorical moderators, specifically female-dominated and male-dominated groups according to the percentage of women in the sample. The female-dominated group was composed of studies that included more than 50% women (one for male-dominated, two for female-dominated).

The coding process involved two steps. First, after agreeing upon the inclusion criteria and coding instructions, each of the researchers conducted a systematic review of the job embeddedness literature in their own native samples, examining studies written in both English and their own native language, and shared the findings thereof. Secondly, the first author and a research assistant independently coded a shared database and compared the final dataset to reveal any inconsistencies. The completed dataset was sent to all authors to achieve a consensus.

Meta-Analysis Calculation

This study followed the famous social science meta-analytic procedure proposed by Hunter and Schmidt (2004). We corrected observed correlations for unreliability and sampling errors. Software for the Hunter-Schmidt meta-analysis methods Version 2.0. Schmidt and Le (2014) and Suurmond et al. (2017) programmes were used for this study. We obtained Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r), Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for independent and dependent variables (Rxx, Ryy), and sample size for each of the studies to calculate the average weighted correlations (r), average weighted corrected correlations (r_c), and standard deviation of the corrected correlations (SD r_c) for the meta-analysis. Additionally, we computed the 95% confidence interval for the corrected correlation, as well as the 80% credibility interval of the corrected population correlation. Confidence intervals estimate variability in the sample-weighted mean correlation as a result of a sampling error; credibility intervals estimate variability in the individual correlations across studies due to moderator variables (Martin et al., 2016; Whitener, 1990). The test of the Q homogeneity statistic was carried out to identify whether there were fixed or random effects at the study level.

As suggested by Cohen (1992), we interpret the effect size of the corrected correlation using the rule of thumb for small, medium, and large effect sizes (.10, .30, and .50). If the 80% credibility interval is large and includes zero, this indicates that there is a moderator effect and considerable variability across studies. To test for moderating hypotheses, the Z statistic is examined to identify whether the difference between the correlations existed between the two subsets because of the moderator effects. Furthermore, we report the percentage of variance (%VE) accounted for in the corrected population correlation by sampling and measurement errors. Moderators are assumed to be operating when sampling and measurement errors account for less than 75% of the variance (Martin et al., 2016).

Results

Descriptive Statistics of Studies and Samples

The studies included in this analysis can be found in Appendix A. A total of 22 studies were examined from both Thailand and Indonesia, with each country contributing an equal number. The average sample size across these studies was 372 participants (SD = 266.15), and on average, 64% of the participants were female (SD = 19.76). The oldest study included in the analysis dates back to 2011, while the most recent study was conducted in 2021.

Test of Main Effects of Job Embeddedness on Turnover Intention

Table 1 demonstrates the results of the meta-analysis of all variables studied with turnover intention. There is a significant negative relationship between overall job embeddedness and turnover intention for our studied samples (r_c = −.49, 95% CI [−0.63, −0.36]), 95% CI does not include zero and shows a moderately strong negative effect toward turnover intention. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is supported.

Table 1.

Meta-Analytic Results for the Studied Variables—Turnover Intention Relationships.

Variable	k	N	r	r_c	SD r_c	95% CI of r_c	Q
Turnover intention
Overall job embeddedness	9	2,492	−.44	−.49	.20	[−0.63, −0.36]	111.99**
Organization embeddedness	14	5,832	−.43	−.51	.18	[−0.60, −0.41]	244.66**
Community embeddedness	10	3,843	−.19	−.22	.20	[−0.35, −0.10]	130.32**
Job embeddedness—Fit	11	4,630	−.27	−.32	.22	[−0.47, −0.18]	226.11**
Job embeddedness—Link	11	4,630	−.07	−.10	.22	[−0.22, 0.07]	170.49
Job embeddedness—Sacrifice	11	4,630	−.27	−.33	.32	[−0.53, −0.14]	398.21**
Job satisfaction	3	1,630	−.26	−.30	.02	[−0.32, −0.28]	1.80**
Organization commitment	5	1,761	−.42	−.46	.35	[−0.77, −0.16]	213.83**

Note. k = number of correlations; N = combined sample size; r = mean sample size weighted for observed correlations; r_c = mean sample size weighted for corrected correlation; SD r_c = standard deviation of the corrected correlation; CI = confidence interval; %VE = percentage of variance attributed to sampling error in corrected population correlation; CV = credibility interval around the corrected population correlation; Q = homogeneity statistic.

p < .01.

Looking at job embeddedness dimensions and their relationship with turnover intention, Table 1 shows Fit and Sacrifice are negatively correlated with turnover intention for our South-East Asia samples (r_c = −.32, 95%CI [−0.47, −0.18] and r_c = −.33, [−0.53, −0.14] respectively), With Cohen’s rule of thumb, Fit and Sacrifice show a medium effect on turnover intention. However, one of the dimensions, Link, does not significantly demonstrate a relationship with turnover intention. Thus, these results indicate support for Hypotheses 2a and 2c, but not for Hypothesis 2b.

Organization embeddedness and community embeddedness are negatively related to turnover intention for South-East Asian samples. As can be seen in Table 1, there is a strong effect of organization embeddedness (r_c = −.51, 95% CI [−.60, −.41]) and a moderately small effect of community embeddedness (r_c = −.22, [−.35, −.10]). Therefore, Hypotheses 3a and 3b are supported. By examining the effect size (r_c = −.51 vs. r_c = −.22), Hypothesis 4 is also supported.

Test of Moderating Effect of Gender

The moderation hypothesis results are shown in Table 2. The percentage of variance attributed to sampling errors and credibility intervals suggests that moderators are affecting the results. However, for overall job embeddedness, the moderating effect cannot be carried out because all the studies are female-dominated. Therefore, the differences between the gender effect cannot be conducted. The results show that gender does not have a moderating effect between organization- and community-embeddedness, with a p-Value greater than .05 for both (p = .54 and .49, respectively). The difference between the organization- and community-embeddedness to turnover intention correlations in gender was nonsignificant. Hypotheses 5b and 5c are not supported, while 5a cannot be verified.

Table 2.

Moderating Effect of Gender on the Job Embeddedness-Turnover Intention Relationship.

Variable	k	N	r	r_c	SD r_c	95% CI of r_c	%VE	80% CV	Q	Z
Turnover intention
Job embeddedness overall	9	2,492	−.44	−.49	.20	[−0.63, −0.36]	7.55	[−0.75, −0.24]	111.99**	n/a
Organization embeddedness	14	5,832	−.43	−.51	.18	[−0.60, −0.41]	7.31	[−0.72, −0.29]	244.66**	0.63
Community embeddedness	10	3,843	−.19	−.22	.20	[−0.35, −0.10]	8.31	[−0.47, 0.3]	130.32**	−0.74

Note. k = number of correlations; N = combined sample size; r = mean sample size weighted observed correlations; r_c = mean sample size weighted corrected correlation; SD r_c = standard deviation of the corrected correlation; CI = confidence interval; %VE = percentage of variance attributed to sampling error in corrected population correlation; CV = credibility interval around the corrected population correlation; Q = homogeneity statistic; Z = Z-score.

p < .01.

Discussion

This meta-analytic study, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, is the first quantitative review of the job embeddedness-turnover intention relationship in South-East Asia. The findings can be valuable both theoretically and practically.

Theoretical Implications

Through the use of meta-analysis incorporating Thai and Indonesian studies, we examined the validity and usefulness of the job embeddedness theory proposed by Mitchell et al. (2001) by investigating five theoretical hypotheses encompassing both direct effects and moderating effects. Our findings contribute to the existing job embeddedness-turnover literature by confirming a negative correlation between job embeddedness and turnover intention in the South-East Asian context. This aligns with the majority of previous research in this field. Despite the extensive study of the job embeddedness-turnover relationship (Allen, 2006; Crossley et al., 2007), our findings further strengthen the evidence for the job embeddedness-turnover intention relationship across different cultures. The consistency and validity of the theory are also evident in South-East Asia, specifically regarding overall job embeddedness.

Secondly, our findings revealed significant variability in the effects and magnitudes of correlations between job embeddedness dimensions and turnover intention across individual studies. In line with our results, Fit and Sacrifice demonstrated a significant correlation with turnover intention. However, contrary to previous literature, Link did not show such a correlation. Past research has also shown inconsistent associations between Link and turnover (Setthakorn, 2019). It is important to note, as suggested by Mitchell et al. (2001) and Johns (2006), that the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover can vary depending on the context or attributes of the sample. Link refers to the number of connections an individual has in the workplace, and the more links they have, the less likely they are to leave their organization and community due to the potential loss of connections that would need to be re-established elsewhere (Bambacas & Kulik, 2013; Mitchell et al., 2001). At first glance, the finding that “Link” is not correlated with turnover intention might come as a surprise, especially in collectivistic societies. Considering Hofstede’s (1998) cultural value dimension, individuals in collectivistic societies like Thailand and Indonesia tend to rely more on close, interdependent relationships. In such societies, individuals are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families, where loyalty is unquestioned. Leaving established links should be more challenging for collectivists compared to individualists. However, it is essential to note that in the context of job embeddedness, “Link” specifically refers to workplace connections. Considering that Thai and Indonesian societies are perceived as feminine in comparison to the more masculine-oriented cultures like the United States and India, the study’s result potentially aligns. In feminine societies, the emphasis is on the balance between family and work, with a focus on life quality (Hofstede, 1998, 2001). In other words, individuals in feminine societies prioritize their family and private links over workplace links, which are of greater importance in more masculine societies. It is worth noting that in Thailand, it is still quite common for employees who leave to take people they are connected with along with them. A team leader in Thailand, for instance, may feel responsible for arranging the departure of their team members to a new employer. Therefore, leaving within a team configuration may render the correlation between “Link” and turnover intention obsolete. Another possible explanation for the lack of significance in “Link” could be the advancement of technology, which has connected us more closely than ever before. As mentioned earlier, the job embeddedness literature in South-East Asia is relatively new, with most of the studies used in this analysis dating back less than a decade, and many within a five-year period. Therefore, even if a person leaves the organization, they can still maintain connections with former colleagues or neighbors with ease. Consequently, these links can be maintained without the need to remain at work.

Third, our findings provide additional support for the importance of on-the-job and off-the-job embeddedness in predicting turnover outcomes. The meta-analysis confirms that both organization embeddedness and community embeddedness are negatively correlated with job embeddedness, with organization embeddedness emerging as a stronger predictor of turnover intention compared to community embeddedness. These findings align with numerous previous studies, such as those conducted by Allen (2006) and Lee et al. (2004). As suggested by Ng and Feldman (2010), job embeddedness inherently implies organizational embeddedness, as the strong bond formed within a specific job attaches an individual to their work environment rather than the larger system. Therefore, when referring to job embeddedness, one can effectively use organization embeddedness as a suitable substitute. This finding reinforces the idea that the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention primarily revolves around the organizational context and highlights the significance of employees’ attachment to their specific work environment.

Fourth, this study contributes to the exploration of potential moderators in the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover. As noted by Jiang et al. (2012), there is variability in the observed estimates across studies, suggesting the presence of potential moderators. However, our findings indicate that gender does not exert an influence on the job embeddedness-turnover intention relationship in the South-East Asian context. In other words, there is no discernible difference between males and females when it comes to the decision to quit their job. One possible explanation for this finding can be found in Hofstede’s (2001) cultural dimension framework, which indicates that Thailand and Indonesia have high levels of collectivism (86, 80) and femininity (54, 66). According to this framework, these countries tend to prioritize group harmony, cooperation, and interdependence, as well as qualities associated with nurturing, care, and quality of life. In these societies, individuals often make decisions that involve and consider the well-being of others, not solely their own interests. Zhang et al. (2017) conducted a study on gender and decision-making, finding that gender does not have a significant impact on risk decision-making. Therefore, in the South-East Asian context where there is a strong sense of group identity and care for others, it is understandable that gender does not moderate the decision to leave a job. This finding underscores the importance of considering cultural factors and social norms when examining the relationship between job embeddedness, turnover, and potential moderating variables in diverse contexts.

Managerial Implications

The findings from this meta-analysis have practical implications for human resource management in South-East Asia. The relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention carries significant implications for both employees and organizations. Job embeddedness has been shown to reduce turnover intention, and since turnover can be highly costly for firms in terms of both direct and indirect expenses, organizations should prioritize policies that enhance job embeddedness to retain their valuable employees.

Promoting fit and sacrifice can be achieved through careful recruitment and selection processes that align with a competitive compensation model. By recruiting individuals who are the right fit for the organization and vice versa, organizations can reap various benefits, including enhanced performance and productivity, higher employee morale, improved work quality, increased employee satisfaction, an improved employee journey, and a higher return on investment (Clark, 2020). Additionally, organizations can emphasize the importance of fit through employee relationship activities and career development programs. These initiatives can help employees establish a sense of belonging and identify themselves as fitting within the organization and its culture.

Although the significance of the link dimension was not observed in our study, we believe that organizations should focus on the quality of connections rather than the quantity to encourage employee retention. By fostering meaningful and supportive relationships within the workplace, organizations can create an environment where employees feel a sense of regret about leaving due to the potential loss of these valuable connections.

Limitations and Future Research Opportunities

This study represents one of the initial meta-analytic reviews conducted on the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover intention in South-East Asia. As a result, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations. One notable limitation is the limited number of empirical studies included in our analysis. Given that job embeddedness is a relatively new concept, the existing research examining job embeddedness as a variable of interest in South-East Asia is still limited compared to more traditional variables such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Consequently, there were insufficient studies to determine whether job embeddedness could serve as a superior predictor to conventional variables and provide greater insights into turnover intention beyond what conventional variables already offer. This presents a clear opportunity for future research, and we encourage further studies to explore this hypothesis within the context of South-East Asia.

Additionally, our examination of gender as a moderating factor utilized a broad grouping variable encompassing both males and females. This approach represents a conservative test and may reduce the likelihood of identifying significant results (Jiang et al., 2012). While we found that gender did not exert a moderating effect on the relationship between job embeddedness and turnover, it is important to consider the potential presence of other moderators (such as organization type). Future studies should incorporate additional moderating variables, and conducting meta-analyses that simultaneously examine multiple moderators could provide valuable insights into the complexities of job embeddedness. Lastly, given the relatively small sample size in our study, we encourage future research to replicate our findings as more empirical studies emerge in South-East Asian countries.

In conclusion, while this study sheds light on the job embeddedness-turnover intention relationship, it is crucial to acknowledge the limitations of the current analysis. By addressing these limitations and conducting further research, we can enhance our understanding of job embeddedness in South-East Asia and its implications for turnover intention.

Conclusion

Despite the extensive research on job embeddedness, its applicability as a universal construct for understanding turnover across different cultures remains uncertain. The conditions under which job embeddedness influences turnover, and the factors that may amplify or diminish its effects, are still not fully understood. Given the inconsistent findings observed in South-East Asia, this meta-analysis aims to consolidate the criteria for the job embeddedness-turnover relationship. The results provide support for previous hypotheses and contribute to the existing job embeddedness literature. It is our hope that this meta-analysis serves as a valuable resource for future research on job embeddedness and assists practitioners in effectively managing employee turnover in the context of South-East Asia.

Footnotes

Appendix A. Included studies

The following studies were included in the current meta-analysis. Supplementary data can be found online at https://tinyurl.com/appendix-metaanalysis-sea

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Kevalin Puangyoykeaw Setthakorn

Rokhima Rostiani

Claus Schreier

Data Availability Statement

The database used for this study can be accessed online at .

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A Meta-Analytic Review of Job Embeddedness and Turnover Intention: Evidence from South-East Asia

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Job Embeddedness and Turnover Intention Relationship

Job Embeddedness Dimensions and Turnover Intention

Organization and Community Embeddedness and Turnover Intention

Moderating Role of Gender on Job Embeddedness and Turnover Intention

Methodology

Literature Search and Inclusion Criteria

Coded Variables

Meta-Analysis Calculation

Results

Descriptive Statistics of Studies and Samples

Test of Main Effects of Job Embeddedness on Turnover Intention

Test of Moderating Effect of Gender

Discussion

Theoretical Implications

Managerial Implications

Limitations and Future Research Opportunities

Conclusion

Footnotes

Appendix A. Included studies

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iDs

Data Availability Statement

References