Institutional and Socio-Cultural Factors that Influence the Wellbeing of Women Working in Academia in Arab Countries: A Scoping Review

Abstract

Academic life in the present era is subject to several occupational stressors, including increased workloads, reduced research funding, tenuous career paths, and family-work conflicts. Such stressors affect academics’ quality of life, wellbeing, and job satisfaction, and women are particularly vulnerable. There is, however, a dearth of information on such issues in the Arab World. We conducted a scoping review to map the current body of knowledge related to the institutional and socio-cultural factors that influence the wellbeing status of women working in academia in Arab countries. Fourteen articles were included. Several challenges threatening women’s wellbeing in academia were identified including institutional factors (i.e., human resource policies and laws, workplace empowerment, and academic mentoring) and socio-cultural factors (i.e., work-life balance, culture and religion). Current human resources, policies, and labor laws do not adequately support maternal or complex family roles contributing to work-life imbalances and contribute to poor mental health outcomes for academic women working in academia in Arab countries. Although some of these challenges may stem from lingering cultural stereotypes about gender roles, this review highlights the need for professional development and mentoring programs for academic women in Arab countries, in addition to supportive institutional laws, policies, and resources for empowerment of women in academia.

Keywords

women academia wellbeing quality of life job satisfaction empowerment

Introduction

Academia’s traditional key components of research, teaching, and service is subject to rigorous performance-based evaluations with a focus on quality assurance, reward systems, accountability, development of centers of excellence, research productivity (Borrelli & Stazio, 2018), and measurable output contributions to society (Bayuo et al., 2020). Although academia can be very rewarding, these metrics require academics working as university faculty to reconfigure their roles to teach larger cohorts of students, secure dwindling research funding, align research to the demands of the knowledge-based economy, and contribute to social innovation (Bayuo et al., 2020; Muzzatti, 2022). Meeting these competitive performance metrics in the context of an increasingly demanding work environment contributes to occupational stress among academics (Converso et al., 2018) witnessed by increasing rates of academic career attrition (Cidlinska et al., 2023) and speculation about an impending “Great Resignation” in academia (Schmiedehaus et al., 2023). Changes in academia over the past few decades such as increased administrative and teaching workload, reduced research funding, and inadequate reward systems have resulted in an array of occupational stressors that is, burnout, reduced quality of life, reduced job satisfaction, and reduced wellbeing among academics (Alves et al., 2019; Mudrak et al., 2018).

Although many occupational stressors apply to all academics, women contend they encounter additional institutional hurdles that adversely impact their performance and wellbeing within the academic environment (Hart, 2013; McNae & Vali, 2015). Compared to their male counterparts, women academics are less likely to report that universities have reasonable expectations related to their work performance and tenure (Lisnic et al., 2019). Women also face additional socio-cultural barriers to work performance (Hart, 2013; McNae & Vali, 2015). Factors that impact women academics’ performance and wellbeing can be branded as either real or perceived. Barriers that affect everyone tend to be identified as real, whereas women’s “perceived” barriers may be invisible to males as they can be embedded in patriarchal institutional structures. For instance real barriers may include the number of working hours and workload, whereas perceived barriers might include lack of professional development opportunities for females, absence of administrative support, male dominance, and underrepresentation in top academic positions (Hart, 2013; McNae & Vali, 2015; Nurumal et al., 2023).

Within this paper, job satisfaction constitutes a measure of wellbeing. Wellbeing refers to an individual’s global judgment of life satisfaction (Diener, 2009). Women academics’ job satisfaction is an aspect of wellbeing and is an amalgamation of both positive or negative feelings toward work (Aziri, 2011). It is an evaluative state that varies over time (Ritzenhöfer et al., 2019; Wolter et al., 2019), and can be contingent on the person’s sense of wellbeing and personal empowerment at work (Seibert et al., 2011). Women academics have consistently had lower career satisfaction than men (August & Waltman, 2004; Machado-Taylor et al., 2014; Nurumal et al., 2023). A study of academic career satisfaction in Portugal found that women were less satisfied than men with personal and professional development, and the balance between work and family (Machado-Taylor et al., 2014).

Gendered perceptions of work-life balance (or imbalance) also contribute to perceptions of wellbeing. For instance, women academics are more likely to report conflict between expectations from their workplace and their personal lives (Rosa, 2021). Work interference with family negatively impacts on job satisfaction and wellbeing (Lisnic et al., 2019). Work-life balance for women, especially working mothers, significantly improves wellbeing when there is temporal and location flexibility in their work (Kaup et al., 2020). In a cross-sectional study of 216 women academics in American universities, Clancy (2019) found that general job stress and work interference with personal life were associated with symptoms of depression, anxiety, and burnout. In a recent survey of Brazilian academics, more than a third reported burnout, with women reporting lower quality of life in addition to being more exhausted than men (Alves et al., 2019).

Liu et al. (2019) assert that women in academia are challenged by their gender and ethnicity at different levels. They proposed the “leaky pipeline” metaphor to illustrate the “progressive loss of competent women faculty members in the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics” (Liu et al., 2019). They identified “pipeline leaks” occurring at various career stages, including selection, promotion and retention, and linked them to the interplay between gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. This study among others, highlights the importance of intersectionality as a feminist framework for understanding the intersections between “deprivileging” factors such as gender and race, and the ways in which they shape women academics’ experiences. Intersectionality was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw when she challenged the universality of gendered experience and argued that women’s experiences are also shaped by the compounding intersections of race, class and other factors (Crenshaw, 1991). It is therefore vital to explore the differential impact of institutional and socio-cultural factors on the wellbeing of women in academia with intersecting identities.

While much has been written about issues related to academics’ wellbeing, most studies emanate from the Global North. There is a dearth of studies from Arab countries where being a woman academic poses unique and specific cultural challenges and obstacles. One notable exception is Karam and Afiouni’s (2014) extensive study of 17 countries in the Arab Middle East and North Africa region which examined gender-related issues for women working in higher education institutions a decade ago. The study underscored prevailing gender ideologies entrenched in patriarchal customs. The lower participation of women in the economy in the region was also highlighted (Karam & Afiouni, 2014). These factors limit the contribution of women in academia via gender segregation, the gendering of professions, and the concentration of women in lower-level organizational roles while reserving leadership positions for men (Hutchings et al., 2012; Karam & Afiouni, 2014).

Women academics in the Arab region are exposed to sociodemographic “deprivileging” factors, socio-cultural contexts, institutional environments, labor regulations and laws, and in some places, armed conflict or war (Afiouni, 2014). These upstream, midstream, and downstream factors (Dopp & Lantz, 2020) intersect to influence women academics’ wellbeing within the Arab region. To date, research on these issues in the Arab region has been fragmented and under-researched. A contemporary understanding of the nature and intersection of the range of factors influencing the wellbeing of women academics working amidst the shifting contemporary academic landscape is needed. As a first step, we conducted a scoping review which aimed to map the current body of knowledge related to the institutional and socio-cultural factors that influence the wellbeing of women working in academia in Arab countries and to identify areas for further research and practice that will contribute to improving their wellbeing. A scoping review was the most appropriate research method for this study as it is used when there is a need to better understand the current body of knowledge and identify gaps for future research and practice (Peterson et al., 2017).

Methods

The review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Statement (Tricco et al., 2018). No protocol is registered for this scoping review. A modified version of the recommended SPIDER (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, Research type) format was used to refine the parameters of our search strategy and the inclusion/exclusion criteria for this review (Amir-Behghadami, 2024; Methley et al., 2014). The SPIDER framework has higher specificity than the PICO framework and was therefore chosen as a basis for this study (Methley et al., 2014). Based on the SPIDER framework, sources were included if they related to the following:

Sample: women academics/faculty working at a university in an Arab country: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip), Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Phenomenon of Interest: aspects of wellbeing including experiences, beliefs, quality of life, productivity, job/career satisfaction, mental health issues (anxiety, depression, stress, burnout), work-life balance, and relationships/family.

Design: any study design, any type of research, evaluation reports, and any type of analysis.

Evaluation: outcomes, experiences, perceptions, barriers, facilitators, etc.

Research Type: any research type, quantitative or qualitative methods. Articles published in English and Arabic were considered. There was no restriction on the publication dates of studies.

A systematic method was used to search the literature between September 2021 and October 2021 and updates were undertaken in November 2022 and February 2023. Searches were conducted in PubMED, SCOPUS, and ERIC databases via the Qatar University Library platform. Searches were limited to keywords and MeSH terms which were devised and tailored to each database. Reference lists of all selected full-text articles and related reviews were hand searched to identify further relevant articles. A Google Scholar (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA) search was also conducted to identify further relevant articles. Table 1 demonstrates the various search terms and constructs combined in the search to find eligible studies.

Table 1.

Search Strategy Included Various Combinations of the Following Key Words.

Search	Search term
#1	women OR woman OR mother OR female OR females
#2	professor OR profession* OR teachers OR teacher OR staff OR faculty OR scholar OR researcher OR scientist OR educator OR instructor OR lecturer tenure-track OR academic OR academics
#3	burnout OR anxiety OR depression OR stress OR “quality of life” OR productivity OR satisfaction OR “mental health” OR “work life balance” OR wellbeing OR job satisfaction OR career satisfaction OR occupational OR work load OR work quality OR quality of working life OR work-life balance OR self-efficacy OR distress OR well-being OR happy OR exhaustion OR labor conflict OR family OR relationship OR marital
#4	academ* OR university OR college OR “higher education” OR “tertiary education” OR institution
#5	Algeria OR Bahrain OR Comoros OR Djibouti OR Egypt OR Iraq OR Jordan OR Kuwait OR Lebanon OR Libya OR Mauritania OR Morocco OR Oman OR Palestine OR Qatar OR Saudi Arabia OR Somalia OR Sudan OR Syria OR Tunisia OR United Arab Emirates OR UAE OR Yemen
#6	#1 and #2 and #3 and #4 and # 5

Screening of eligible sources was performed at three levels (title, abstract, and full text review). The titles of potential sources were arranged in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet in alphabetical order to exclude duplicates. The included sources were equally divided among the 12 reviewers involved in the eligibility screening of the article titles and abstracts. Reviewers were assigned to articles using the randomization function in Microsoft Excel and the title and abstract of each source were independently evaluated by two reviewers. Three reviewers were involved in the full text screening of sources. Disagreements at any stage between the reviewers were discussed and resolved.

Data extraction from full text sources included in the review was conducted by the three main reviewers. A custom-built Microsoft Excel spreadsheet was used to collect the extracted data. Data extracted included author names, title, year of publication, country of publication, study aim/objective, study design, study setting, population, sample age, sample language, sample size, construct of interest, and results/conclusion. Similar concepts were identified and data were tabulated accordingly. Although no thematic analysis was conducted specifically, broad constructs were pooled for ease of interpretation of the data.

Results

Study Selection

The database searches yielded 582 sources and the Google Scholar search (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA) yielded 11 additional sources resulting in a total of 593 sources. After removing irrelevant sources and duplicates, 61 sources underwent title and abstract screening. Sixteen sources progressed to the full text screening stage. During the full text screening and data extraction process, two sources were deemed ineligible as there were no separate data or specific focus on women academics. In total, 14 sources were deemed eligible for inclusion in this review (Al Miskry et al., 2021; Alfawaz et al., 2021; Almuhammadi et al., 2020; Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, & Essa, 2021; Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021; Al-Rubaish et al., 2009; Al-Smadi & Qblan, 2015; Alwazzan & Rees, 2016; Bani-Hani et al., 2018; Bataineh, 2014; Ensour et al., 2017; Gabr et al., 2021; Ghandour et al., 2020; Karam & Afiouni, 2014). Figure 1 provides a PRISMA flowchart illustrating the search results.

Figure 1.

PRISMA flowchart illustrating search results.

Study Characteristics

Of the 14 included sources, the majority (n = 7) were studies conducted in Saudi Arabia, three were conducted in Jordan, with one study each from Lebanon, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, and Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip). The included studies were conducted between 2009 and 2021 and published in English. Participants in the studies were women academics/faculty, medical educators, women instructors, university community, staff, and students ranging from 17 to 70 years of age. Sample sizes ranged from six to 5,587 participants. Seven studies included men and women and seven included only women (Almuhammadi et al., 2020; Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, & Essa, 2021; Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021; Alwazzan & Rees, 2016; Bani-Hani et al.,2018; Ensour et al., 2017; Karam & Afiouni, 2014). Some studies included more than one type of study design. Study designs included a critical literature review (Karam & Afiouni, 2014), analysis of publicly available documents (n = 2) (Ensour et al., 2017; Karam & Afiouni, 2014), and qualitative interviews (n = 4) (Almuhammadi et al., 2020; Alwazzan & Rees, 2016; Bani-Hani et al., 2018; Ensour et al., 2017). The remainder of the studies were cross-sectional studies, of which six used questionnaires administered by email or online (Al Miskry et al., 2021; Alfawaz et al., 2021; Al-Rubaish et al., 2009; Al-Smadi & Qblan, 2015; Bataineh, 2014; Ghandour et al., 2020), three used questionnaires but the administration process was not described (Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, & Essa, 2021; Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021; Gabr et al., 2021), and one involved in-person blood collection (Gabr et al., 2021). Tables 2 and 3 summarize the characteristics and main results/conclusions of the included studies respectively. Constructs related to wellbeing included self-esteem, self-efficacy, job satisfaction, empowerment, stress, mental health concerns, and coping strategies.

Table 2.

Characteristics of Included Studies (n = 14).

Study	Year	Country	Study design	Study setting	Population	Sample age	Sample gender	Sample size	Data collection tool/s
Almuhammadi et al. (2020)	2020	Saudi Arabia	Qualitative interviews	English Language Institute (ELI) at King Abdul-Aziz University (KAU)	University English as a Foreign Language instructors	Not available	Women	6	Interview guide
Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al. (2021)	2021	Saudi Arabia	Cross-sectional survey	Government universities	University academics and administrative staff	Mean ± SD 36.40 ± 8.19	Women	5,587	Questionnaire: Women’s Empowerment Scale
Ensour et al. (2017)	2017	Jordan	Stage 1: Document analysis Stage 2: Qualitative interviews	University	Stage 1: Government and university documents Stage 2: University academics	Not available	Women	Stage 1:five documents Stage 2: focus group with 13 women Stage 3: in-depth interviews with 20 women	Stage 1: No tool reported Stage 2: Focus group discussion guide Stage 3: Interview guide
Karam and Afiouni (2014)	2014	Lebanon	Study 1: critical literature review Study 2: document analysis	Universities in MENA region	Study 2: Universities	Not available	Women	Study 1: 20 reports, 63 articles Study 2: 234 universities	No tools reported
Gabr et al. (2021)	2021	Egypt	Cross-sectional survey	Menoufia University	University academics	36.32 ± 6.41 years	Women and men	142 (67 women, 75 men)	Questionnaire: Tarfadar technostress Blood test for cortisol
Al Miskry et al. (2021)	2021	United Arab Emirates	Cross-sectional survey	University	University academics, administrative staff, and students	About 15.5% (n = 114) of the participants were aged 18 years and below, 39.9% (n = 249) aged 19–22 years, 5.3% (n = 39) aged 23–29 years, 8.1% (n = 60) aged 30–39 years, 16.8% (n = 124) aged 40–49 years, and 14.4% (n = 105) were 50 years and above.	Women and men	737	Questionnaire: General Health Questionnaire 12 (GHQ-12) Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ-16) Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS-48)
Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, and Essa (2021)	2021	Saudi Arabia	Cross-sectional survey	15 government universities	University academics and administrative staff	One-half of the study participants were aged from 30 to 40 years, with a mean (SD) age of 36.40 ± 8.19 years	Women	5,587	Questionnaire: Socio-demographic items Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale General Self-efficacy Scale Women’s Empowerment Scale
Alfawaz et al. (2021)	2021	Saudi Arabia	Cross-sectional survey	King Saud University	University academics and students	20–45 years	Women and men	726	Questionnaire developed and validated by researchers: Socio-demographic items Items related to bonding Items related to mental wellness
Ghandour et al. (2020)	2020	Palestine	Cross-sectional survey	Birzeit University	University academics and students	17–70 years	Women and men	1,851	Questionnaire: Standardized distress and insecurity scales previously developed and validated by the Institute of Community and Public Health at Birzeit University
Alwazzan and Rees (2016)	2016	Saudi Arabia	Qualitative interviews	Saudi universities	University medical educators	25–59 years	Women	25	Interview guide
Al-Rubaish et al. (2009)	2009	Saudi Arabia	Cross-sectional survey	King Faisal University	University academics	26.1% were below 40, 36.6% in group 41 to 50, and 37.3% above 50 years	Women and men	248	Questionnaire: Modified version of Herzberg’s Job Satisfaction Scale (JSQ15)
Al-Smadi and Qblan (2015)	2015	Saudi Arabia	Cross-sectional survey	Narjan University	Faculty members	Not available	Women and men	262	Questionnaire: Jobs satisfaction questionnaire
Bataineh (2014)	2014	Jordan	Cross-sectional survey	Jordan, Mu’tah, Yarmouk, and Hashemite University	Faculty members from Colleges of Education	Not available	Women and men	118 (28 women, 90 men)	Questionnaire: Job satisfaction questionnaire
Bani-Hani et al. (2018)	2018	Jordan	Qualitative interviews	Hashemite University	Academic faculty staff	Not available	Women	51	Interview guide

Table 3.

Main Study Results/Conclusions of the Included Studies (n = 14).

Study	Aim/Objective of study	Construct/s of interest	Main study conclusions
Almuhammadi et al. (2020)	To explore female EFL instructors’ perceptions of the effect of the professional development provided by the English Language Institute (ELI) at King Abdul-Aziz University (KAU) on their self-efficacy and the type of professional development training that they feel has the greatest effect on their sense of self-efficacy.	Professional development Self- efficacy	•“Instructors had positive perceptions of the professional development … in terms of enhancing their efficacy beliefs, as it enabled an opportunity for professional enhancement, positively influenced teaching practice to help students’ learning, and developed a positive atmosphere of collegiality and collaboration” •“Participants demonstrated a positive attitude toward the ELI’s mentoring program, as it enabled them to be inspired by an expert in the field, improved their teaching competencies, and created a feeling of professionalism.” •“Participants held a conflicting view of the effect of classroom observation on instructors’ self-efficacy.” •“Some believed that observations represent an important professional development tool that helps improve their performance, while others perceived it as a source of efficacy doubt”
Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al. (2021)	To explore the perceived and real barriers to workplace empowerment among women at Saudi universities	Women’s empowerment	•“52.1% of study participants had moderate workplace empowerment, 10.2% have a low level” •“Regarding perceived barriers to workplace empowerment, 42.6% of participants agree that male dominance was a barrier.” •“36.2% of participants agreed and strongly agree that the customs and traditions are a barrier to women empowerment at the workplace.” •“Multiple linear regression showed that age, followed by years of experience (p < .000), were the most significant demographic predictors of women empowerment at the workplace.” •“Positive attitude, high self-esteem, and good knowledge (p < .000) were considered other variables that positively predict women's empowerment at the workplace.” •“The experience of gender-based violence (p < .000) was a negative predictor of women empowerment at the workplace.” •“The study concluded that around 62.3% of Saudi women academics and administrative staff have moderate or low workplace empowerment at Saudi Universities.” •“Male dominance is perceived as the highest barrier”
Ensour et al. (2017)	To investigate the factors hindering Arab women’s academic career development through studying the case of Jordanian academic women.	Cultural, social, economic, and legal factors HR policy formulation Labor laws	•“The results indicate women academics as tokens facing many interconnected and interrelated barriers embodied in cultural, social, economic and legal factors.” •“The findings support the general argument proposed in human resource management (HRM) literature regarding the influence of culture on HRM practices” •“and also propose that the influence of culture extends to having an impact on HR policies’ formulation as well as the formal legal system”
Karam and Afiouni (2014)	To contribute to the broader dialogue of development by highlighting what Morley (2007) calls the “intertextuality between gender, higher education, and development” and by critically reflecting on how HR can play a role in facilitating this agenda.	Experiences of women academics as they relate to university HR policies and labor laws	•“Our review of the literature suggests that there are four categories of drivers discussed in the literature: (1) government- and judicial-approved changes; (2) social globalization in terms of level of human rights, justice, inclusion; (3) national/regional socioeconomic development; and (4) women’s movements and the initiatives of individuals.” •“The percent of women represented in the sample differs within and between countries.” •“The range extends from 9% at Sana’a University College in Yemen to 60% at King Abdulaziz University College in Saudi Arabia, with an average number of 32.8% women faculty members at any rank across all universities sampled.” •“Thirteen universities have 40%–51%, six have less than 20% and two have less than 10% of their faculty composed of women.” •“These appear to suggest a high rate of women faculty representation.”
Gabr et al. (2021)	To study technostress and challenges of remote virtual work environment among university staff members at Menoufia University, Egypt.	Technostress	•“Female participants, participants who were lecturers or higher grades, and participants who did not have good WiFi or modern computers had significantly higher mean overload, invasion, and complexity than males or participants who were teaching assistants or up (p < .001 for each).” •“Female participants in this study reported higher technostress levels than males”
Al Miskry et al. (2021)	To explore the psychological impact of COVID-19 on university faculty members, staff, and students, and also the coping strategies used during the lockdown.	Coping strategies, health behaviors, psychological and physical health	•“The results indicated that 60.4% of students, 57.4% of the faculty members, and 52.3% of the staff experienced mild psychiatric problems.” •“About 32.9% of students, 33.7% of the faculty members, and 25% of the staff experienced high levels of worry during the COVID-19 lockdown.” •“Changes in eating patterns, worsening chronic health problems, change in sleep patterns, and concentration difficulties were reported.” •“Furthermore, significant differences were observed in worry and coping strategies among participants. Women use more avoidance and emotion-focused coping compared to men.”
Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, and Essa (2021)	To explore the role of self-esteem and self-efficacy in women empowerment among academic and administrative staff at Saudi universities.	Self-esteem, self-efficacy, women empowerment	•“The results indicated that study participants’ self-esteem was equally distributed between moderate (49.8%) and high (50.2%).” •“Also, 66.9% of the participants had high self-efficacy, and 86.8% had high total women's empowerment.”
Alfawaz et al. (2021)	To investigate the prevalence of self-reported mental health parameters and the coping mechanisms of employees and students in a Saudi State University	Psychological wellbeing	•“Majority of the respondents claimed to have suffered from anxiety (58.1%), depression (50.2%) and insomnia (32.2%) during the lockdown.” •“On average, 65.3% respondents agreed that family bond strengthened during lockdown.” •“Those in the highest quartile of family bonding score (Q4) were 41% [odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.59 (0.39–0.87), p < .001] and 59% [OR 0.41 (CI 0.27–0.64), p < .001] were less likely to be anxious and depressed, respectively, even after adjusting for covariates.” •“This independent and significant inverse association was more apparent in females than males.”
Ghandour et al. (2020)	To investigate the mental health status of the Birzeit University community during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown using locally developed and validated dis tress and insecurity measures.	Mental health	•“There were 1,851 participants in the study: … Sixty two percent were women.” •“Prevalence of moderate/high distress and insecurity were 40% and 48% respectively.” •“Multiple logistic regression revealed that women, those under 35 years old and those with worse reported income, had significantly higher odds of distress and insecurity compared to their counterparts.” •“A COVID-19 worry score was significantly associated with higher odds of distress and insecurity (OR = 1.77, 95%CI[1.46–2.14]) and (OR = 4.3, 95%CI[3.53–5.23]) respectively.”
Alwazzan and Rees (2016)	To explore female medical educators’ views and experiences of gender, career progression and leadership in academic medicine in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia	Career progression	•“Participants discussed the gendered organizational cultures of academic medicine in the KSA in terms of gender inequalities (e.g., females being overlooked for leadership positions), gender stereotypes (e.g., women perceived as more likely to take part in shared leadership) and gendered specialties (e.g., surgery being male dominated).”
Al-Rubaish et al. (2009)	To explore the level of job satisfaction among the academic staff of King Faisal University – Dammam (KFU-D).	Job satisfaction	•“The overall mean Job Satisfaction Rate (JSR) was 73.6%.” •“The highest JSR’s were found in three domains (‘Supervision’, ‘Responsibility’, and ‘Interpersonal Relationships’), and the lowest in four others (‘Salary’, ‘My Work Itself’, ‘Working Conditions’, and ‘Advancement’).” •“The JSR was significantly lower among Saudi nationals, females, those below age 40, those from clinical medical and Dentistry departments.” •“Multiple Regression identified six independent variables which conjointly explained 25% of the variance in job satisfaction (p < .0001).” •“These were: being an expatriate, above the age of 50, serving the university for less than one or more than ten years, and, not from a clinical department of Medicine or Dentistry.”
Al-Smadi and Qblan (2015)	To identify the impact of some variables (gender, teaching experience, college type) on assessing the level of job satisfaction among faculty of Narjan University	Job satisfaction	•“The results showed a moderate degree of job satisfaction in general, and there are statistically significant differences due to (gender, teaching experience and college type), where the differences were in favor of males, scientific colleges and more experienced.”
Bani-Hani et al. (2018)	To shed light on empowering Jordanian women as leaders at the Hashemite university	Women’s empowerment	•“The Hashemite model of women empowerment had an impact and value among women who benefit from taking leadership positions by eliminating their perceptions of explicit gender bias and barriers stand in the face of women in higher education and through improving and enhancing their sense of psychological empowerment and ability to be innovative.”
Bataineh (2014)	To assess the level of job satisfaction among educational faculty member in Jordanian universities.	Job satisfaction	•Results indicated that faculty members had a moderate level of job satisfaction. •Moreover, results showed differences in the level of job satisfaction for gender, higher teaching experience, higher rank level, and university type. •Job satisfaction was higher among males than females

Discussion of Findings

This scoping review is the first to explore the literature related to institutional and socio-cultural factors influencing the wellbeing of women academics in Arab countries. Constructs of wellbeing addressed by these studies included self-esteem, self-efficacy, stress, personal empowerment, and mental health concerns. The review identified a range of institutional factors that influenced the wellbeing of women academics, including human resources policies and laws, workplace empowerment, academic mentoring, and job satisfaction. Socio-cultural factors that influenced women academics’ wellbeing included work-life balance, culture, and religion. The discussion will discuss the institutional and socio-cultural factors separately.

Institutional Factors that Influence the Wellbeing of Women Academics in Arab Countries

Human resources policies and laws

Our review identified two studies which highlighted how human resources (HR) regulations and labor laws affect a woman’s life in universities in Arab countries (Ensour et al., 2017). Ensour et al. (2017) conducted a document analysis of the Jordanian constitution, Jordanian Labour Law and its amendments, and how it relates to women academics. The higher education and scientific research law, Jordanian universities’ law, and universities’ HR policies and regulations were also analyzed (Ensour et al., 2017). Similarly, Karam and Afiouni (2014) examined publicly available university data in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region to document the representation of women across ranks and the content of HR policies. Both studies highlighted a number of restrictive patterns in the legal and legislative framework in relation to women. For example, although the constitutions of most countries in this region guarantee equality of all citizens before the law, women still face forms of discrimination that are legal, systematic and infiltrate every aspect of life (Afiouni, 2014; Kelly & Breslin, 2010; Robbins & Thomas, 2018). Jordanian Labour Law has led to several cases of employers discriminating against women (Nseer, 2015). Ensour et al. (2017) found that the Jordanian Labour Law was perceived as not being fully protective or supportive of women. All participants stated that there is a bias in the law whereby pregnant woman are protected from being terminated from their employment only after the sixth month of their pregnancy or during the maternity leave, rather than at any stage of pregnancy. Study participants argued that such a law creates stress and causes women to hide their pregnancy until the sixth month. Karam and Afiouni (2014) found that only ten out of 234 universities examined had on-site daycare and that maternity leave periods are short (ranging from 30 days in Tunisia to 98 days in Algeria and Morocco). As a result, they proposed that universities develop HR policies that are more family friendly. Discriminatory laws and institutional policies undermine the status of women and impede women’s rights in the Arab region (Afiouni, 2014; Sika, 2011). For women in the Arab MENA, there is a multifaceted and complex set of obstacles that prevent them from enjoying the full political, civil, legal, and economic rights (Kelly & Breslin, 2010; Robbins & Thomas, 2018). Odhiambo (2011) argues that it is nearly impossible to separate a woman’s position in any organization from her position in society, and that nowhere in the world are women and men equal in legal, social or economic rights.

All over the MENA area, the representation of women academics decreases as the academic rank increases. Karam and Afiouni (2014) found that seven of the 234 universities examined provided faculty data by rank. At the Assistant and Associate Professor rank, the representation of women ranged from 0% (Yemen and Syria) and 1.3% (UAE) to 10.7% (Qatar) and 36.8% (Algeria). At the full Professor rank the representation of women ranged from 0% (Yemen) to 5.4% (Lebanon) (Karam & Afiouni, 2014). In universities in Jordan, women constituted 22.9% of Assistant Professors, 12% of Associate Professors, and only 7% of full Professors (www.mohe.gov.jo). According to Ensour et al. (2017), this is due to HR policies in some Jordanian universities which do not provide women with PhD scholarships the same benefits as those provided to men. This can be attributed to Arab women’s perceived dependency that the financial burden is generally the men’s responsibility. This issue is however not confined to Arab women. In the USA, although women outnumber men in academic study, in academic ranks women are on average at a lower level, and slower to reach higher ranks (Fox, 2020).

A similar issue exists with respect to managerial positions. In the included study by Ensour et al. (2017) in Jordan, over 85% of focus group participants stated that managerial promotion regulations are typically unclear for women. In addition, the authors also stated that usually women are excluded from positions such as department head, dean, vice president, and president (Ensour et al., 2017). Between 1962 and 2016, across 28 private and public universities in Jordan, only one female headed a public university, and this was for a period of 1 year. By 2016, there were only two women among 46 university vice presidents, and only 27 women among 300 deans, ten of whom were deans of nursing faculties (Ensour et al., 2017). For women, the issue isn’t about proving they are deserving of a leadership position, but in gaining access to these positions (Odhiambo, 2011). In a study on women’s progression to senior management positions in universities in England, although the criteria for advancement did not explicitly disadvantage women, some female senior managers believed that their involvement in management was not always advantageous to them as it came at the expense of their research (Doherty & Manfredi, 2006).

Enacting quotas of women in higher positions has been proposed as a strategy for increasing representation. In the study by Ensour et al. (2017), 60% of participants supported the institution in applying a quota system to increase the representation of women in higher positions. Gender quotas are typically assumed to provide substantive representation for women (Xydias, 2007) and regarded by some as essential for increasing the number of women in leadership positions (Pande & Ford, 2012). However, they are not without cost. Franceschet and Piscopo (2008) studied gender quotas in Argentina and found that although quotas generated mandates for women legislators, they also reinforced negative stereotypes about women’s capacities.

Workplace empowerment

A key aspect of women’s empowerment in the workplace is its relationship to self-esteem and self-efficacy (Ventura et al., 2015). The self-efficacy of working women is crucial in identifying their potential performance in stressful and ever-changing working conditions, such as those in universities (Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, & Essa, 2021). According to Hajloo (2014), there is a strong predictive relationship between self-efficacy and self-esteem. In the study by Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed and Essa (2021), 73% of the women’s empowerment level was predicted by self-esteem and self-efficacy. The authors found that Saudi women in higher education institutions had moderate to high levels of self-esteem or self-efficacy. Another study of Saudi women have found similarly high levels of self-esteem, with level of education being strongly correlated with self-esteem (Kazi et al., 2015). Many researchers have highlighted the role of education in women’s empowerment through its contribution to self-esteem (Engida, 2021; Sundaram et al., 2014). Permwonguswa et al. (2018) investigated the role of self-esteem, emotional empowerment, and self-concepts in the readiness for knowledge sharing in different electronic health systems. They reported that self-esteem is a unique and important predictor of psychological empowerment, which can be greatly enhanced by increasing knowledge and economic independence. In the study by Almuhammadi et al. (2020), participants generally agreed that professional development activities assisted women in becoming better professionals and that their confidence was boosted in their teaching abilities. These findings are in line with other studies in Arab countries demonstrating that professional development activities enhance a teacher’s confidence with regards to performance (Tantawy, 2020).

This scoping review found that age and years of experience were the most significant predictors of Arab women’s empowerment at the workplace (Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021). This is consistent with a study by Menon and Sharma (2020) on women’s empowerment in urban Bangalore, India which found that older, more experienced women were more empowered than younger women. The study by Al Ghamdi (2016) on academic women leaders in Saudi universities also showed a positive relation between years of experience, level of administrative position, and psychological empowerment at the workplace.

Male dominance also plays an important role in the empowerment of women in a workplace. In the study by Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al. (2021), participants identified male dominance as an important barrier for women’s empowerment in the workplace. Similarly, Al Ghamdi (2016) and Bani-Hani et al. (2018) concluded that women academic leaders had limited scope of authority. Women reported having access to fewer training programs, resources, and opportunities, limiting their professional growth and negatively affecting their academic empowerment. A study by Al-Kayed (2015) investigated challenges faced by women leaders at Saudi universities and concluded that male dominance is a significant barrier to Saudi women’s empowerment in managerial positions as the decision-making power of women was significantly restricted by male managers. The gender segregation policies in Saudi universities typically restrain women leaders as they must take approvals for all critical decisions from their male managers.

This scoping review also identified that gender-based violence negatively impacted women’s empowerment in the workplace (Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021). Gender-based violence, which is violence directed against a person because of their gender or “violence that disproportionately affects persons of a particular gender,” negatively impacts both the physical and psychological aspects of women’s empowerment (Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021). In the workplace, violence may be expressed in many forms such as ignoring women’s opinions, limiting higher administrative positions to men, verbal abuse, and differential control over resources (Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021). All types of gender-based violence regardless of where it occurs, destroys women’s self-esteem and self-confidence, and hence woman may feel less empowered.

Academic mentoring

In this scoping review we identified that working in a collaborative atmosphere which is also collegial, enhances women academics’ motivation, enables them to become more productive, and boosts their self-efficacy by improving their emotional state (Almuhammadi et al., 2020). When academics believe that their colleagues and their institution support them and share their values, it is more likely that they will have the confidence to try new teaching strategies, which will further boost their self-efficacy (Almuhammadi et al., 2020). Similar results have been reported in a study by Shousha (2015) at a university in Saudi Arabia. In referring to Bandura’s (1977) sources of self-efficacy, Shousha (2015) highlighted the role of mentoring programs, classroom observations, and role models in increasing academics’ self-efficacy related to teaching. Almuhammadi et al. (2020) found that through active reflection on the behaviors of their mentors and others, a woman academic’s belief in her own abilities was enhanced. Other studies on academics and teachers have found similar results. Khojah and Asif (2020) found that participants in a mentoring program for academics were generally positive about their participation in the program, and believed that it was highly beneficial to mentees, mentors, and the institution. In a study on teachers in Saudi Arabia, women mentees identified the important role that mentors play as both role model and motivator (Shukri & Leil, 2017). A study by Moulding et al. (2014) found that mentors’ feedback and support was viewed as positively influencing women teachers’ level of belief in their own ability.

Although many of the academics in the included Almuhammadi et al. (2020) study stated that classroom observation boosts their sense of self-efficacy and professional development, others perceived it as creating doubt due to the feedback received. Shukri and Leil (2017) reported that most participants agreed that observations played an important role in improving teaching practices. They also highlighted that it was important for observers to maintain a high standard in terms of ethics (Shukri & Leil, 2017). Furthermore, the observers pointed out that there should be more focus on providing positive and constructive feedback on the lesson, and less focus on the errors made (Shukri & Leil, 2017). A positive approach is also more likely to empower academics to engage in a process of reflection, whereby they can identify their educational needs and improve their practice (O’Leary, 2020).

Job satisfaction

Three studies in this scoping review found lower levels of job satisfaction among academic women across most domains (Al-Rubaish et al., 2009; Al-Smadi & Qblan, 2015; Bataineh, 2014). Al-Rubaish et al. (2009) found that job satisfaction for women academics was lower than for men in the domains of supervision, responsibility, interpersonal relationships, administrative policies, and achievement. This finding was similar to the study by Al-Smadi and Qblan (2015) in which women academics reported lower levels of job satisfaction than men in domains related to the academic environment, psychological and social aspects of work, and interpersonal communication, and a similar level of dissatisfaction to men in the salaries and financial support domain. Bataineh (2014) also reported lower levels of job satisfaction among women academics in Jordanian universities compared to men. In contrast to the findings of this scoping review, studies in other socio-cultural settings have not identified such differences in job satisfaction between women and men academics (Machado-Taylor et al., 2014; Santhapparaj & Alam, 2005). This may be explained by differences in gender segregation policies and cultural practices in the Arab region compared to other countries. Such practices occur in education, work, and social settings, and may explain the lower rate of job satisfaction among women academics.

Socio-Cultural Factors that Influence the Wellbeing of Women Academics

Work-life balance

Three studies included in this review highlighted important socio-cultural factors that may contribute to mental health problems among women in academia, particularly anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown (Al Miskry et al., 2021; Alfawaz et al., 2021; Ghandour et al., 2020). These studies highlighted significant differences in coping strategies between women and men academics. Women used more avoidance and emotion-focused coping strategies compared to men. Ghandour et al. (2020) reported that women academics under 35 years of age and with lower income had significantly higher levels of distress and insecurity compared to their male counterparts. Interestingly, family bonding was reported to have strengthened during the lockdown, an association that was more apparent in women than in men academics (Alfawaz et al., 2021). These findings are consistent with previous research highlighting the emotional burden and challenges associated with balancing work and personal lives among women academics prior to the pandemic (Goyal & Arora, 2012; Punia & Kamboj, 2013). Work-life imbalance affects women’s health, causing stress, depression, headache, and muscle tension, and is a greater barrier to career advancement compared to men (Delina & Raya, 2013). A study by Pace and Sciotto (2021) found that work-life balance had a greater impact on wellbeing and was linked to the perception of fewer career opportunities for women compared to men. These findings, together with the findings from this scoping review suggest that the link between work-life balance and wellbeing is stronger among women than men.

Culture and religion

Three studies in this scoping review reported results related to the impact of cultural factors on women in academia (Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al., 2021; Alwazzan & Rees, 2016; Ensour et al., 2017). The study by Ensour et al. (2017) found that women academics are faced with many interconnected and interrelated barriers embodied in cultural, social, and economic factors. In the study by Al-Qahtani, Ibrahim, Elgzar, El Sayed, Abdelghaffar, et al. (2021), over one-third of the participants felt that customs and traditions are barriers to women’s empowerment at the workplace. These results are consistent with those found by Al-Asfour et al. (2017) who studied the barriers facing Saudi women’s career development, and found that customs and traditions are imposed on certain work fields and administrative positions for women. Additionally, Al-Ahmadi (2011) explored leadership challenges for Saudi women and reported many cultural restraints that hinder women’s administrative and professional creativity.

The results of this review are also consistent with other studies that examined women’s experiences regarding perceived cultural barriers. Howe-Walsh and Turnbull (2016) reported that organizational culture with influences such as temporary work arrangements, male-dominated networks, intimidation, and harassment can be considered as a barrier to women’s career advancement. Moreover, Bhatti and Ali (2021) revealed that women are expected to exercise masculine attributes for representing themselves as successful leaders since masculine academic culture does not accept them in their feminine style. Thus, women in Arab academic institutions in particular may encounter numerous challenges in constructing their leadership identities.

Strengths and Limitations

A major strength of this scoping review is that it successfully mapped the current body of knowledge related to the institutional and socio-cultural factors that influence the wellbeing of women working in academia in Arab countries and highlighted a number of challenges which threaten the wellbeing of women in these institutions. This review also highlights the need for professional development and mentoring programs for academic women in Arab countries, in addition to supportive institutional laws, policies, and resources for empowerment of women academics working in Arab institutions. This review further attempted to provide a contemporary understanding of the nature and intersection of the range of factors impacting the wellbeing of women academics working amidst the shifting academic landscape to identify areas for further research and practice that will contribute to improving their wellbeing. A scoping review was the most appropriate research method for this study as it helped to better understand the current body of knowledge and identify gaps for future research and practice.

A limitation to this study was that although a systematic methodological approach was used to identify and screen the literature, a risk of bias evaluation of the included studies was not conducted. In addition, the aim of this scoping review was to map the literature and analysis of the evidence was not included. For this reason, the results of this review have to be viewed with caution, and cannot be used as evidence for clinical guidelines, limitations, or recommendations.

Conclusion

We conducted a systematic scoping review to map the current body of knowledge related to the institutional and socio-cultural factors that influence the wellbeing of women working in academia in Arab countries. To our knowledge, this is the first scoping review of its kind. Fourteen articles were included. Several challenges threatening women’s wellbeing in academia were identified including institutional factors (i.e., human resource policies and laws, workplace empowerment, and academic mentoring) and socio-cultural factors (i.e., work-life balance, and culture and religion). Current human resources, policies, and labor laws do not support maternal or complex family roles contributing to work-life imbalances and poor mental health outcomes for academic women. Even with equal pay policies, these challenges contribute to lower job satisfaction for academic women in Arab institutions and explain their underdeveloped research profiles as well as underrepresentation in higher rank academic posts. Although some of these challenges may stem from lingering cultural stereotypes about gender roles, customs, and traditions, this review highlights the need for professional development and mentoring programs for academic women in Arab institutions, as well as supportive institutional laws, strategies, policies, and resources for the empowerment of women in academia working in Arab institutions. We therefore recommend that more attention be paid to the professional development and mentoring of women academics at Arab institutions, and that labor laws be revised adequately to ensure women are well supported in their careers. Further research is required which delves deeper into the social and cultural nuances from a biopsychosocial theoretical framework around the experiences of women academics in Arab institutions. In addition, further research is also warranted around better understanding the mental health of women academics in Arab institutions and how best to address mental health in this population in a socially and culturally sensitive manner.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The funding was supported by Qatar university.

Ethical Statement

This study is exempt from ethical approval.

ORCID iDs

Alsayed Hassan D

Morris LD

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

References

Afiouni

(2014). Women’s careers in the Arab Middle East: Understanding institutional constraints to the boundaryless career view. Career Development International, 19(3), 314–336. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-05-2013-0061

Al Ghamdi

A. M

. (2016). The empowerment of academic women leaders at Saudi universities and its relationship to their administrative creativity. Dissertations, 2484. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2484

Al Miskry

A. S. A.

Hamid

A. A.

Darweesh

A. H. M

. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on university faculty, staff, and students and coping strategies used during the lockdown in the United Arab Emirates. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 682757.

Al-Ahmadi

(2011). Challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia. Human Resource Development International, 14(2), 149–166.

Al-Asfour

Tlaiss

H. A.

Khan

S. A.

Rajasekar

(2017). Saudi women’s work challenges and barriers to career advancement. Career Development International, 22(2), 184–199.

Alfawaz

H. A.

Wani

Aljumah

A. A.

Aldisi

Ansari

M. G.

Yakout

S. M.

Sabico

Al-Daghri

N. M.

(2021). Psychological well-being during COVID-19 lockdown: Insights from a Saudi State University’s Academic Community. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 33(1), 101262.

Al-Kayed

(2015). Leadership challenges for women managers in public universities in Saudi Arabia. Global Journal of Human-Social Science, 15(4), 34–43.

Almuhammadi

K. H.

Assalahi

H. M.

Madini

A. A.

(2020). Saudi female EFL instructors’ perceptions of the effects of professional development on their self-efficacy. English Language Teaching, 13(10), 74–84.

Al-Qahtani

A. M.

Ibrahim

H. A.

Elgzar

W. T.

El Sayed

H. A.

Essa

R. M.

(2021). The role of self-esteem and self-efficacy in women empowerment in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 25(1), 69–78.

10.

Al-Qahtani

A. M.

Ibrahim

H. A.

Elgzar

W. T.

El Sayed

H. A. E.

Abdelghaffar

Moussa

R. I.

Alenzy

A. R.

(2021). Perceived and real barriers to workplace empowerment among women at Saudi universities: A cross-sectional study. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 25(1), 26–35.

11.

Al-Rubaish

A. M.

Rahim

S. I. A.

Abumadini

M. S.

Wosornu

(2009). Job satisfaction among the academic staff of a Saudi University: An evaluative study. Journal of Family and Community Medicine, 16(3), 97.

12.

Al-Smadi

M. S.

Qblan

Y. M.

(2015). Assessment of job satisfaction among faculty members and its relationship with some variables in Najran University. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(35), 117–123.

13.

Alves

P. C.

Oliveira

A. D. F.

Paro

H. B. M. D. S

. (2019). Quality of life and burnout among faculty members: How much does the field of knowledge matter? PLoS One, 14(3), e0214217. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214217

14.

Alwazzan

Rees

C. E.

(2016). Women in medical education: Views and experiences from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Medical Education, 50(8), 852–865.

15.

Amir-Behghadami

(2024). SPIDER as a framework to formulate eligibility criteria in qualitative systematic reviews. BMJ Supportive and Palliative Care, 14, e312–e313. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjspcare-2021-003161

16.

August

Waltman

(2004) Culture, climate, and contribution: Career satisfaction among female faculty. Research in Higher Education, 45(2), 177–192.

17.

Aziri

(2011). Job satisfaction: A literature review. Management Research & Practice, 3(4), 77–86.

18.

Bandura

(1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

19.

Bani-Hani

K. E.

Alaedein

Istaiteyeh

R. M. S.

(2018). Empowering Jordanian women as leaders in higher education: The case of the Hashemite University. The Social Sciences, 13(4), 969–981. https://doi.org/10.36478/sscience.2018.969.981

20.

Bataineh

O. T.

(2014). The level of job satisfaction among the faculty members of colleges of education at Jordanian Universities. Canadian Social Science, 10(3), 1–8.

21.

Bayuo

B. B.

Chaminade

Göransson

(2020). Unpacking the role of universities in the emergence, development and impact of social innovations – A systematic review of the literature. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 155, 120030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120030

22.

Bhatti

Ali

(2021). Women constructing leadership identities in academia: Intersection of gender and culture. Issues in Educational Research, 31(1), 1–18. http://www.iier.org.au/iier31/bhatti.pdf

23.

Borrelli

Stazio

(2018). La “grande trasformazione” dell’università italiana (The “great transformation” of the Italian University). Rivista Trimestrale di SCIENZA dell’AMMINISTRAZIONE, 1, 1–19.

24.

Cidlinska

Nyklova

Machovcova

Mudrak

Zabrodska

(2023). “Why I don’t want to be an academic anymore?” When academic identity contributes to academic career attrition. Higher Education, 85(1), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00826-8

25.

Clancy

R. L.

(2019). Examining the relationship between work stressors and mental health among women in academia. Colorado State University.

26.

Converso

Loera

Molinengo

Viotti

Guidetti

(2018). Not all academics are alike: First validation of the Academics’ Quality of Life at Work Scale (AQoLW). Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 417893. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02408

27.

Crenshaw

(1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against Women of Color (1994). Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229039

28.

Delina

Raya

R. P.

(2013). A study on work-life balance in working women. International Journal of Commerce, Business and Management, 5(2), 2319–2828.

29.

Diener

(Ed.). (2009). The science of well-being: The collected works of Ed Diener. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2350-6

30.

Doherty

Manfredi

(2006). Women’s progression to senior positions in English universities. Employee Relations, 28(6), 553–572.

31.

Dopp

A. R.

Lantz

P. M.

(2020). Moving upstream to improve children’s mental health through community and policy change. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 47(5), 779–787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-019-01001-5

32.

Engida

Y. M.

(2021). The three dimensional role of education for women empowerment. Journal of Social Sciences, 17(1), 32–38.

33.

Ensour

Al Maaitah

Kharabsheh

(2017). Barriers to Arab female academics’ career development: Legislation, HR policies and socio-cultural variables. Management Research Review, 40(10), 1058–1080.

34.

Fox

M. F.

(2020). Gender, science, and academic rank: Key issues and approaches. Quantitative Science Studies, 1(3), 1001–1006. https://doi.org/10.1162/qss_a_00057

35.

Franceschet

Piscopo

J. M.

(2008). Gender quotas and women’s substantive representation: Lessons from Argentina. Politics & Gender, 4(3), 393–425.

36.

Gabr

H. M.

Soliman

S. S.

Allam

H. K.

Raouf

S. Y. A.

(2021). Effects of remote virtual work environment during COVID-19 pandemic on technostress among Menoufia University Staff, Egypt: A cross-sectional study. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(38), 53746–53753.

37.

Ghandour

Ghanayem

Alkhanafsa

Alsharif

Asfour

Hoshiya

Masalmeh

Nadi

Othman

Ryahe

(2020). Double burden of COVID-19 pandemic and military occupation: Mental health among a Palestinian University community in the West Bank. Annals of Global Health, 86(1), 131.

38.

Goyal

Arora

(2012). Harnessing work: Family life balance among teachers of educational institutions. International Journal of Applied Services Marketing Perspectives, 1(2), 170.

39.

Hajloo

(2014). Relationships between self-efficacy, self-esteem and procrastination in undergraduate psychology students. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 8(3), 42.

40.

Hart

(2013). Missing the forest for the trees: Gender pay discrimination in academia. Denver University Law Review, 91, 873–891.

41.

Howe-Walsh

Turnbull

(2016). Barriers to women leaders in academia: Tales from science and technology. Studies in Higher Education, 41(3), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.929102

42.

Hutchings

Lirio

Metcalfe

B. D.

(2012). Gender, globalisation and development: A re-evaluation of the nature of women’s global work. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(9), 1763–1787. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.610336

43.

Karam

C. M.

Afiouni

(2014). Localizing women’s experiences in academia: Multilevel factors at play in the Arab Middle East and North Africa. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(4), 500–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.792857

44.

Kaup

Jain

Shivalli

Pandey

Kaup

(2020). Sustaining academics during COVID-19 pandemic: The role of online teaching-learning. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, 68(6), 1220–1221. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijo.IJO_1241_20

45.

Kazi

Romedan

Alquaiz

(2015). Self-esteem and its correlates in Saudi women in Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Asian Academic Research Journal of Social Science & Humanities, 2(5), 213–227.

46.

Kelly

Breslin

(2010). Women’s rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress amid resistance. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

47.

Khojah

Asif

(2020). Mentoring matters in workplace: The impact of formal mentoring program on EFL instructors’ performance at ELI, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. English Language Teaching, 13(4), 140–161.

48.

Lisnic

Zajicek

Kerr

(2019). Work–family balance and tenure reasonableness: Gender differences in faculty assessment. Sociological Spectrum, 39(5), 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2019.1691097

49.

Liu

S.-N. C.

Brown

S. E.

Sabat

I. E.

(2019). Patching the “leaky pipeline”: Interventions for women of color faculty in STEM academia. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 7(1), 32.

50.

Machado-Taylor

M. D. L.

White

Gouveia

(2014). Job satisfaction of academics: Does gender matter? Higher Education Policy, 27(3), 363–384. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2013.34

51.

McNae

Vali

(2015). Diverse experiences of women leading in higher education: Locating networks and agency for leadership within a university context in Papua New Guinea. Gender and Education, 27(3), 288–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2015.1027669

52.

Menon

Sharma

(2020). A study on the status of women’s empowerment in urban Bangalore, India. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 21(5), 54–64.

53.

Methley

A. M.

Campbell

Chew-Graham

McNally

Cheraghi-Sohi

(2014). PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: A comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Services Research, 14(1), 579. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-014-0579-0

54.

Morley

(2007). Sister-matic: Gender mainstreaming in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 12(5–6), 607–620.

55.

Moulding

L. R.

Stewart

P. W.

Dunmeyer

M. L.

(2014). Pre-service teachers’ sense of efficacy: Relationship to academic ability, student teaching placement characteristics, and mentor support. Teaching and Teacher Education, 41, 60–66.

56.

Mudrak

Zabrodska

Kveton

Jelinek

Blatny

Solcova

Machovcova

(2018). Occupational well-being among university faculty: A job demands-resources model. Research in Higher Education, 59(3), 325–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9467-x

57.

Muzzatti

S. L.

(2022). Strange bedfellows: Austerity and social justice at the neoliberal University. Critical Criminology, 30(3), 495–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-022-09646-9

58.

Nseer

(2015). Working and discrimination in the Jordanian private sector. Alwarraq.

59.

Nurumal

M. S.

Jamaludin

S. T. S.

Nor Azizan

N. A.

Che Hasan

M. K.

Sutrisno

R. Y.

(2023). Job satisfaction and perception among female academics during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. International Journal of Care Scholars, 6(1), 119–139. https://doi.org/10.31436/ijcs.v6i1.291

60.

Odhiambo

(2011). Women and higher education leadership in Kenya: A critical analysis. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 33(6), 667–678.

61.

O’Leary

(2020). Classroom observation: A guide to the effective observation of teaching and learning (2nd ed.). Routledge.

62.

Pace

Sciotto

(2021). Gender differences in the relationship between work–life balance, career opportunities and general health perception. Sustainability, 14(1), 357. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010357

63.

Pande

Ford

(2012). Gender quotas and female leadership. World Bank.

64.

Permwonguswa

Khuntia

Yim

Gregg

Kathuria

(2018). Knowledge sharing in a health infomediary: Role of self-concept, emotional empowerment, and self-esteem. Health Systems, 7(3), 181–194.

65.

Peterson

Pearce

P. F.

Ferguson

L. A.

Langford

C. A.

(2017). Understanding scoping reviews: Definition, purpose, and process. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 29(1), 12–16. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/2327-6924.12380

66.

Punia

Kamboj

(2013). Quality of work-life balance among teachers in higher education institutions. Learning Community-An International Journal of Educational and Social Development, 4(3), 197–208.

67.

Ritzenhöfer

Brosi

Spörrle

Welpe

I. M.

(2019). Satisfied with the job, but not with the boss: Leaders’ expressions of gratitude and pride differentially signal leader selfishness, resulting in differing levels of followers’ satisfaction. Journal of Business Ethics, 158(4), 1185–1202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3746-5

68.

Robbins

Thomas

(2018). Women in the Middle East and North Africa: A divide between rights and roles. Retrieved January 23, 2020. https://www.arabbarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/AB_WomenFinal-version05122018.pdf

69.

Rosa

(2021). The trouble with ‘work–life balance’ in neoliberal academia: A systematic and critical review. Journal of Gender Studies, 31, 55–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2021.1933926

70.

Santhapparaj

A. S.

Alam

S. S.

(2005). Job satisfaction among academic staff in private universities in Malaysia. Journal of Social Sciences, 1(2), 72–76.

71.

Schmiedehaus

Cordaro

Perrotte

Stern

Dailey

Howard

(2023). The great resignation in higher education: An occupational health approach to understanding intentions-to-quit for faculty in higher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 123, 103992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103992

72.

Seibert

S. E.

Wang

Courtright

S. H

. (2011). Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(5), 981.

73.

Shousha

A. I.

(2015). Peer observation of teaching and professional development: Teachers’ perspectives at the English language institute, King Abdulaziz University. Arab World English Journal, 6(2), 131–143.

74.

Shukri

Leil

A. A.

(2017). Female mentees’ perspectives of a mentoring program in the Saudi context. The International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Invention, 4, 3888–3899.

75.

Sika

(2011). The millennium development goals: Prospects for gender equality in the Arab world. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 12(3), 27–42.

76.

Sundaram

M. S.

Sekar

Subburaj

(2014). Women empowerment: Role of education. International Journal in Management & Social Science, 2(12), 76–85.

77.

Tantawy

(2020). Investigating teachers’ perceptions of the influence of professional development on teachers’ performance and career progression. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ), 11(1), 181–194.

78.

Tricco

A. C.

Lillie

Zarin

O’Brien

K. K.

Colquhoun

Levac

Moher

Peters

M. D. J.

Horsley

Weeks

Hempel

Akl

E. A.

Chang

McGowan

Stewart

Hartling

Aldcroft

Wilson

M. G.

Garritty

… Straus

S. E.

(2018). PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 467–473.

79.

Ventura

Salanova

Llorens

(2015). Professional self-efficacy as a predictor of burnout and engagement: The role of challenge and hindrance demands. The Journal of Psychology, 149(3), 277–302.

80.

Wolter

J. S.

Bock

Mackey

Smith

J. S.

(2019). Employee satisfaction trajectories and their effect on customer satisfaction and repatronage intentions. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 47(5), 815–836. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-019-00655-9

81.

Xydias

C. V.

(2007). Inviting more women to the party: Gender quotas and women’s substantive representation in Germany. International Journal of Sociology, 37(4), 52–66.