Storytelling in Dark Tourism: The Role of Flow Experience and National Identity

Abstract

In the domain of dark tourism, storytelling serves a dual purpose: it preserves and interprets cultural and historical significance while providing a context that shapes tourists’ experiences. Flow experience is characterized as the optimal state of tourist engagement, deepening the connection between tourists and the content presented at dark tourism destinations. The notion of national identity sheds light on the interplay between tourists’ personal identities and dark tourism destinations, shaping their perception of such experiences. Within the framework of this study, four salient attributes of storytelling in dark tourism were highlighted: emotionality, uniqueness, descriptiveness, and educability. Subsequently, the interconnections among dark tourism storytelling, behavioral intention, flow experience, and national identity were explored using structural equation modeling. Empirical results underscored the pronounced influence of dark tourism storytelling on tourists’ behavioral intentions. Additionally, this research elucidated both the mediating role of flow experience and the moderating role of national identity in this relationship. These findings significantly enriched the theoretical comprehension of dark tourism and storytelling, offering valuable insights for management strategies in dark tourism destinations.

Keywords

dark tourism storytelling behavioral intention flow experience national identity

Introduction

Dark tourism is a phenomenon linked to death, suffering, violence, and disaster (Stone, 2006; Stone & Sharpley, 2008). It encompasses more than merely being physically present at dark tourism destinations; it also results from a multifaceted process involving numerous positive and negative experiences (Iliev, 2021; Israfilova & Khoo-Lattimore, 2019). While numerous studies have addressed tourists’ perceptions and experiences in dark tourism (Qian et al., 2017; Stone, 2012), the application and development of theories related to dark tourism experience settings remain underexplored (Iliev, 2021; Light, 2017). More comprehensive empirical research from multiple perspectives is necessary to better understand the dark tourism experience (Biran & Buda, 2018; Nawijn & Fricke, 2015; Roberts & Stone, 2014), particularly focusing on elements that can generate meaningful dark tourism experiences (Rajasekaram et al., 2022). This research offers a novel perspective by integrating storytelling into the fabric of dark tourism, underscoring the pivotal role of storytelling in the dark tourism experience.

Storytelling is frequently used to convey, elucidate, and evaluate tourists’ experiences (J. H. Kim & Youn, 2016; S. H. Kim et al., 2020). Notably, in dark tourism, storytelling fosters empathy and connection between tourists and the narrations showcased at dark tourism destinations. It also contextualizes and frames tourists’ experiences (Li & Liu, 2020; Moscardo, 2020). Moreover, storytelling helps preserve and interpret the cultural and historical significance of dark tourism, deepening tourists’ understanding of the broader social and cultural frameworks underpinning these experiences (J. Wang et al., 2021). Despite its significance, the role of storytelling in tourism has only recently begun receiving academic attention (e.g., Bessiere & Ahn, 2021; Fu et al., 2022; S. H. Kim et al., 2020). Specifically, the empirical support for storytelling in dark tourism needs explicit investigation. To bridge the gap in the existing literature on dark tourism and storytelling, this study focuses on the vital components of storytelling in dark tourism that can shape tourists’ experiences and influence their behaviors.

Flow experience, denoting tourists’ optimal state of engagement (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Jackson & Eklund, 2004; Wu & Liang, 2011), is a significant metric for gauging the quality of tourists’ experiences (Adam, 2015; M. Kim & Thapa, 2018). Tourists visiting dark tourism destinations often aim to engage with challenging or painful histories, confront themes of death, or delve into the murkier facets of human existence (Stone, 2012). In particular, flow experience in dark tourism enables tourists to engage more deeply with the content presented at dark tourism destinations. When tourists achieve a state of flow, it can lead to a greater appreciation of the historical and cultural significance of these destinations, helping them navigate the experiences in a more positive and meaningful way (Kuo et al., 2016). Therefore, understanding the role of flow experience can offer valuable insights into the psychological processes involved in dark tourism and its impact on tourists. While the importance of flow experience is recognized, there remains a gap in understanding how this flow experience specifically interacts with the storytelling present in dark tourism. This study addresses this literature gap by empirically investigating the intermediary role of flow experience in linking dark tourism storytelling to tourists’ behavioral intentions.

Dark tourism is often associated with traumatic or tragic events that hold strong emotional and symbolic meanings for both local communities and the entire nation (Foley & Lennon, 2000; Winter, 2009). National identity, therefore, is pivotal in decoding the intricacies of dark tourism as it provides insights into the nexus between tourists’ personal identities and the cultural and historical significance of dark tourism destinations (Palmer, 1999). The national identity of tourists can shape their interpretation of events at dark tourism destinations, influencing their engagement levels and overall experiences (Tinson et al., 2015). It can even impact tourists’ advocacy for a destination and their willingness to revisit (Lever et al., 2022; Shen et al., 2021). Notably, the Chinese government, in its commitment to preserving national unity and harmony, often promotes patriotism education through dark tourism to bolster Chinese citizens’ identification with the nation (Yan et al., 2016; Zhao & Timothy, 2015). Despite the significance of this dynamic, comprehensive studies examining the intersection of national identity and dark tourism within the Chinese context are limited. To address this gap, this research empirically explores the pivotal moderating role of Chinese national identity in the realm of dark tourism.

This study aimed to identify the fundamental conceptual framework for dark tourism storytelling and to examine the structural relationships among dark tourism storytelling, behavioral intention, flow experience, and national identity. Specifically, the research objectives of this study were: (1) to identify the crucial attributes of dark tourism storytelling, (2) to explore the impact of dark tourism storytelling on behavioral intention, (3) to assess the mediating role of flow experience in the relationship between dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention, and (4) to evaluate the moderating role of national identity in the relationship between dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention. The findings of this study will significantly contribute to advancing theoretical research on dark tourism and storytelling. Additionally, they provide a valuable practical reference on how to shape positive dark tourism experiences and promote tourists’ behavioral intentions at dark tourism destinations.

Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

Dark Tourism Storytelling

The term “dark tourism” was coined by Foley and Lennon (1996a) and refers to tourists’ visits to locations associated with death or disaster for reminiscence, education, and entertainment. Subsequently, Foley and Lennon (2000) published their monograph, leading to the widespread use of the concept. Dark tourism entails the presentation and consumption of genuine or commercially represented places of death and disaster (Foley & Lennon, 1996b), offering tourists an array of dark experiences (Stone, 2006). Seen as a psychological and symbolic consumption process, dark tourism involves visiting sites associated with death and represents an interactive process between tourists and these spaces (Yan et al., 2016). Storytelling, defined as the normative, discourse, and political process of crafting stories (Hartman et al., 2019), involves sharing knowledge, experience, and traditions in a comprehensible, meaningful, and memorable narrative format (S. H. Kim et al., 2020). Initially, storytelling in tourism was perceived mainly as the descriptions and explanations provided by tour guides (Dann, 1996). However, as the connotation of tourism storytelling has evolved, it is no longer restricted to traditional linguistic narrations; it can also encompass nonverbal modes such as movies, dramas, songs, cartoons, animations, games, and more (J. Song, 2006). In the realm of dark tourism, storytelling can be characterized as the interaction among dark tourism destinations, tourists, storytellers, and narrations, showcasing dark tourism to visitors through various linguistic and nonverbal methods.

Storytelling is gaining increased attention in tourism research. Pera (2017) posited that storytelling is a potent co-creative behavior in tourism, capable of eliciting a delightful response from customers. Yoon et al. (2011) investigated the evolution of storytelling in tourist destinations through Aleida Assmann’s cultural memory lens, suggesting that such destinations progress through three stages: story planning, story building, and storytelling. Y. N. Song and Kang (2014) discovered the therapeutic potential inherent in the narrative structure of storytelling, noting its capacity to alleviate stress, soothe pain, and regulate emotional expressions (Mathisen, 2019). Storytellers also occupy a pivotal position in the tourism storytelling process. They cultivate connections with tourists using diverse storytelling components (Bessiere & Ahn, 2021) and employ varied experiential techniques to narrate distinct stories tailored to specific target groups (Bryon, 2012). Existing research on storytelling in dark tourism predominantly emphasizes the interpretative aspect, wherein the narrations of dark tourism storytellers bridge tourists with somber tales (Salazar, 2006; Zerva, 2021; Zerva & Nijkamp, 2016), offering them an array of experiences (J. Wang et al., 2021; Wyatt et al., 2021). Recognizing the inherent individual differences among tourists, Willard et al. (2022) suggested that enhancing tourists’ cultural competence and kindling their interest in the narrations are crucial when sculpting dark tourism experiences via storytelling.

Based on literature concerning storytelling, and in alignment with the nuances of dark tourism, four pivotal attributes of dark tourism storytelling have been redefined: emotionality, uniqueness, descriptiveness, and educability. From an emotionality standpoint, dark tourism is replete with diverse emotional factors, eliciting potent emotional responses from tourists (Seaton, 2009; H. Zhang et al., 2016). Robust emotional components are imperative for storytelling (Nabi & Green, 2015), and these emotions are central to the dark tourism experience (Martini & Buda, 2020). Such emotions can encourage individuals to further engage with stories in dark tourism settings, enhancing their comprehension. Considering uniqueness, dark tourism offers distinct experiences to its visitors, with the specific context and locale of these experiences being paramount (Buda, 2015; Jordan & Prayag, 2021). Successfully crafted unique stories not only capture attention but are also challenging for others to emulate (Mossberg, 2008). This implies that storytelling should underscore and highlight the singular facets, both manifest and latent, of dark tourism locales. Regarding descriptiveness, the information conveyed via narration tends to be more comprehensible and memorable (Escalas, 2007; Jones & Song, 2014). Importantly, stellar narration and impeccable delivery of tales are crucial for effectively relaying destination details to tourists (S. H. Kim et al., 2020). This detailed storytelling approach in dark tourism allows tourists to viscerally experience the profound feelings linked to death and suffering. From an educability perspective, the inclusion of more instructional elements is increasingly becoming integral to dark tourism (Cohen, 2011). Some tourists are drawn to dark tourism destinations due to their quest for knowledge or comprehension (Iliev, 2021; Zheng et al., 2018). As such, the portrayal and elucidation of dark tourism lean heavily on the educational aspect, enriching the depth and meaning of the experience.

Behavioral Intention

Behavioral intention, defined as the likelihood of undertaking a specific action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Oliver, 2010), represents the subjective judgment and anticipated future behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Kozak, 2001). Chen and Tsai (2007) suggested that tourists’ behavioral intentions encompass the probability of returning to the destination or the inclination to recommend it to others. Consequently, word of mouth (WOM) and revisit intention (RI) are metrics used to interpret tourists’ behavioral intentions (Alcañiz et al., 2009; Chi & Qu, 2008; T. H. Lee, 2009). Analogously, dark tourists’ behavioral intentions pertain to the likelihood of revisiting the dark tourism destination or the propensity to recommend this destination to others.

Dark Tourism Storytelling and Behavioral Intention

Storytelling has been mentioned in studies examining tourists’ behavioral intentions. J. H. Kim and Youn (2016) posited that story elements and their audio-visual presentation modality stimulate and enhance memory and behavioral intention, underscoring the significance of authentic cues and positive emotion within these story elements. S. H. Kim et al. (2020) investigated the effects of medical tourism agents’ storytelling on medical tourists’ trust and behavioral intentions. Their findings indicated that the act of telling has a stronger influence on increasing medical tourists’ trust than the story’s attributes. This trust, in turn, can positively forecast medical tourists’ behavioral intentions. Choi (2021) asserted that tourist attraction moderates the relationship between storytelling and behavioral intention in marine tourism; optimal marine tourist destinations emerge when there is a synergy between storytelling and tourist attraction. The aforementioned studies provide ample evidence suggesting that storytelling can shape behavioral intention. Based on this, the first hypothesis of this study is articulated as:

H1: Emotionality (H1a), uniqueness (H1b), descriptiveness (H1c), and educability (H1d) of dark tourism storytelling positively influence behavioral intention.

Flow Experience

Flow experience occurs when individuals become deeply engrossed in an activity, yielding a pleasurable and optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). Similarly, Ghani and Deshpande (1994) posited that complete concentration and enjoyment are central to achieving a flow experience. Drengner et al. (2018) elaborated upon and refined the concept of flow, emphasizing the progression from engrossment to enjoyment, and noted that this revised definition can be applied consistently across various research contexts. In essence, dark tourists’ flow experience can be described as a state in which they are fully engrossed in dark tourism activities, obtaining optimal experiences related to death, suffering, violence, and disaster.

Dark Tourism Storytelling and Flow Experience

Storytelling shapes numerous dimensions of tourist experiences, offering tourists meaningful experiences in an accessible and memorable manner (Moscardo, 2010; Mossberg, 2007). Shin (2018) delved into user experiences within VR storytelling and proposed that the cognitive phenomenon of flow is pivotal in experiencing and connecting deeply with VR tales. This suggests that storytelling fosters a flow experience that engulfs participants, injects drama, and creates the illusion of altered reality (Kolar & Čater, 2018). During the immersive conceptual-imaginative phase of storytelling, participants’ focus and imagination are seized by the narrative components. The compelling rendition of this storytelling imprints lasting memories on participants, during which they may lose awareness of time and their immediate surroundings (Fu et al., 2022). Given these insights, one could infer that dark tourism storytelling bolsters tourists’ flow experience, leading to the formulation of the second hypothesis in this study:

H2: Emotionality (H2a), uniqueness (H2b), descriptiveness (H2c), and educability (H2d) of dark tourism storytelling positively influence flow experience.

Flow Experience and Behavioral Intention

Research into the connection between flow experience and behavioral intention in tourism has garnered significant attention from scholars. Ding and Hung (2021) explored flow experiences in music festivals and determined that such experiences enhance music festival visitors’ memory and behavioral intentions. Lu et al. (2022) found that tourists’ soundscape perceptions positively affect flow experience, which in turn positively impacts behavioral intention. According to Ye et al. (2022), the visual effects and interactivity of tourism live streaming positively influence participation intentions, with flow experience playing a crucial mediating role. Consequently, flow experience is related to behavioral intention, leading to the formulation of the third hypothesis in this study:

H3: Flow experience positively influences behavioral intention.

The Mediating Role of Flow Experience

From the analyses concerning the interplay among dark tourism storytelling, flow experience, and behavioral intention, it’s posited that flow experience might act as a mediator between dark tourism storytelling and tourists’ behavioral intentions. This led to the creation of the fourth hypothesis in this study:

H4: Flow experience mediates the relationship between emotionality (H4a), uniqueness (H4b), descriptiveness (H4c), and educability (H4d) of dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention.

National Identity

National identity, as an intensely personal concept, can be understood as individuals leveraging their distinct identities to shape their self-awareness (Palmer, 1999). Membership in a nation is not solely based on ethnic ancestry but also encompasses markers of identity, interpreted as social characteristics and objective facets of life. These markers include accent, dress, physical appearance, place of birth and residence, and citizenship status (Kiely et al., 2001; van der Werf et al., 2020). From a cultural perspective, national identity embodies the essence of a particular culture, setting it apart from others (Keillor et al., 1996). Qu et al. (2021) posited that national identity can be viewed as a sense of belonging, honor, and duty to one’s nation.

Numerous studies have sought to clarify the relationship between tourism and national identity. These studies indicate that tourism influences the formation and preservation of national identity (Butler et al., 2014; Lepp & Harris, 2008; Silva & Leal, 2015), and that tourists validate or convey their national identity through tourism activities (Morgan & Pritchard, 1998; Unger et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2020). Specifically, much research emphasizes the significance of Chinese national identity in tourism. Chinese tourists validate and convey their Chinese national identity via symbolic interactions (Yang et al., 2020). Furthermore, Chinese tourists, driven by a robust sense of national identity and patriotism, demonstrate civility in their tourism behavior to uphold and project a positive Chinese national image (Qu et al., 2021). Within the realm of dark tourism, this study examines the national identity of the Chinese nation, encompassing 56 ethnic groups, and how it manifests as a unified national community.

The Moderating Role of National Identity

National stories promoting consanguinity can profoundly influence national identity (Anderson, 2006). Research on visitors to the Australian War Memorial has shown that the Anzac story holds significant resonance with many Australians, fostering a sense of belonging and life values (Roppola et al., 2021). Similarly, Packer et al. (2019) analyzed the national identity of tourists who visited the Australian War Memorial and Gallipoli battlefields. They found that storytelling not only connects tourists to the narration and interpretation of war heritage but also fosters inclusiveness and promotes reconciliation. Additionally, Tinson et al. (2015) examined the role of dark tourism in storytelling, discovering that dark tourists use their experiences to narrate the nation’s tales and, in doing so, co-create and reinforce national identity.

Tourists’ behavioral intentions are intrinsically linked to their national identity. On the one hand, national identity effectively shapes destination promotion through proactive word of mouth. Individuals with a robust national identity champion their nation, encouraging others to visit (Lever et al., 2022). On the other hand, a pronounced alignment between a tourist’s identity and the national character positively influences visitation intentions, with tourists displaying a favorable attitude and a willingness to revisit the destination (Stokburger-Sauer, 2011). Shen et al. (2021) further corroborated that national identity, emphasizing attitudinal identification and emotional connection, significantly influences tourists’ proclivity to revisit dark tourism sites. Consequently, national identity can function as a moderating conduit in communication with behavioral ramifications (Ariffin et al., 2015; Comello, 2013).

From the above considerations, the fifth hypothesis in this study is presented as:

H5: National identity moderates the relationship between emotionality (H5a), uniqueness (H5b), descriptiveness (H5c), and educability (H5d) of dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention.

Following the literature review and hypotheses development, this study devised the research model depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Research model.

Methodology

Measurement Scales

Drawing from various prior studies, new measurement scales, presented in Table 1, were formulated for this research. All items were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The measurement scales comprise 30 questions, covering the following four variables: dark tourism storytelling, behavioral intention, flow experience, and national identity. A literature review on dark tourism and storytelling (Jeong & Kim, 2018; J. H. Kim, 2018; S. H. Kim et al., 2020) enabled the measurement of dark tourism storytelling through four dimensions: emotionality (five items), uniqueness (four items), descriptiveness (five items), and educability (three items). Behavioral intention (five items), encompassing word of mouth and revisit intention, was gauged by referencing Y. J. Lee (2016), Prayag et al. (2013), and C. Y. Wang and Hsu (2010). Flow experience (five items), which includes elements like concentration, merging, loss of self-consciousness, and timelessness, was derived from the flow characteristics outlined by Csikszentmihalyi (1975) and measurement items developed by Drengner et al. (2018) and Kuo et al. (2016). National identity (three items) was evaluated using the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised (MEIM-R) suggested by Phinney and Ong (2007). This measure has been validated for studying national identity in Chinese tourism, as evidenced by Shen et al. (2021).

Table 1.

Measurement Scales.

Construct and items	Source
Emotionality (EM)
EM01: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” made me sad.	Jeong and Kim, (2018), J. H. Kim (2018), and S. H. Kim et al. (2020)
EM02: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” made me painful.
EM03: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” made me respectable and solemn.
EM04: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” made me angry.
EM05: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” made me scared.
Uniqueness (UN)
UN01: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” made me feel the unique characteristics of Nanjing.
UN02: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is related to the folk stories of Nanjing.
UN03: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is related to the social environment of Nanjing.
UN04: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is related to the people of Nanjing.
Descriptiveness (DE)
DE01: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is explained in an easy-to-understand way.
DE02: The description of the storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is consistent with the theme.
DE03: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is explained in great detail.
DE04: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is explained clearly.
DE05: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” is explained vividly.
Educability (ED)
ED01: The storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre” satisfied my thirst for knowledge.
ED02: I learned profound knowledge from the storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre.”
ED03: I received useful information from the storytelling of the “Nanjing Massacre.”
Behavioral intention (BI)
BI01: I will share photos and comments about this visit on social media.	Y. J. Lee (2016), Prayag et al. (2013), and C. Y. Wang and Hsu (2010)
BI02: I will take the initiative to talk about this visit with others.
BI03: I will recommend visiting here to others.
BI04: I will visit here again.
BI05: I will visit here again with my family or friends.
Flow experience (FE)
FE01: I was highly concentrated when I visited here.	Csikszentmihalyi (1975), Drengner et al. (2018), and Kuo et al. (2016)
FE02: I was completely immersed when I visited here.
FE03: I did not have any other thoughts when I visited here.
FE04: I lost my awareness of time when I visited here.
FE05: I forgot my personal problems when I visited here.
National identity (NI)
NI01: I deeply understood the meaning of my Chinese nation membership through this visit experience.	Phinney and Ong (2007) and Shen et al. (2021)
NI02: I felt a strong sense of belonging to the Chinese nation through this visit experience.
NI03: I felt a strong attachment to the Chinese nation through this visit experience.

Data Collection

Data for this study were collected using a questionnaire. To ensure the validity of the measurement items, a preliminary survey was conducted with a small sample of Chinese tourists who had dark tourism experiences. The questionnaire was then revised based on their feedback. Since 2014, over 8 million tourists have visited the Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders annually. Even amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, the average annual visitor count to the memorial hall has remained above 1 million since 2020 (The Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders [TMHVNMJI], 2021). Due to its significance as a representative dark tourism destination in China, this memorial hall was chosen as the survey location for this study. Chinese tourists visiting the location were selected as survey participants. A professional research company was hired to identify suitable respondents using its online panel database. To ensure a representative sample, gender and place of residence were used as sampling criteria. Approximately 50% of respondents for each gender were selected, ensuring an even male-to-female distribution. Regarding place of residence, about half the respondents were from Nanjing City, while the rest were from other regions. Data collection was conducted from September 14th to September 27th, 2022. Over this two-week period, 352 questionnaires were gathered from visitors across 24 provinces in China. After discarding 25 questionnaires due to invalid responses, 327 valid ones remained for empirical analysis. The sample size significantly exceeded 10 times the number of questionnaire items (Nunnally, 1978), satisfying the basic requirements for the subsequent empirical analysis.

Data Analysis

The data analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0 and AMOS 23.0 in this study. Firstly, descriptive analysis was employed to explain the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Secondly, for the purpose of verifying the reliability and validity of the measurement scales, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed. Thirdly, the relationships among variables were assessed using structural equation modeling (SEM). Finally, the mediating role was examined through bootstrap analysis, and the moderating role was probed using hierarchical multiple regression (HMR) analysis.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

A descriptive analysis of the respondents’ profiles was conducted, and the results are presented in Table 2. Of the 327 respondents, 48.01% were male and 51.99% were female. A significant majority, 92.04%, were under 40 years of age, with those in their 20s representing slightly over half (52.29%). 74.62% had attained education up to a bachelor’s degree level. The monthly income distribution of respondents was fairly even, with ¥6,000 to ¥8,999 (CNY) being the most common income bracket, encompassing 29.97%. Lastly, participants hailed from 24 provinces in China, with 46.79% originating from Nanjing City.

Table 2.

Demographic Profile of Respondents (N = 327).

Characteristics	N	%	Characteristics	N	%
Gender			Age
Male	157	48.01	Under 20s	28	8.56
Female	170	51.99	20s	171	52.29
Education level			30s	102	31.19
High school or lower	24	7.34	40s	19	5.81
College	34	10.40	50s	6	1.83
University	244	74.62	60s and above	1	0.31
Graduate school	25	7.65	Occupation
Monthly income (CNY)			Company employee	207	63.30
Less than ¥3,000	58	17.74	Student	62	18.96
¥3,000–¥5,999	55	16.82	Public servant	25	7.65
¥6,000–¥8,999	98	29.97	Skills and professional	14	4.28
¥9,000–¥11,999	77	23.55	Self-employed	9	2.75
¥12,000 and above	39	11.93	Sale and service industry	6	1.83
Place of residence			Housewife	2	0.61
Nanjing	153	46.79	Retired	1	0.31
Others	174	53.21	Others	1	0.31

Exploratory Factor Analysis and Reliability Analysis

First, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to identify the underlying dimensions of variables. The analysis can be considered appropriate to conduct if the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy exceeds .5 and the p-value in Bartlett’s test of sphericity is below .05 (Hair et al., 2010; Williams et al., 2010). Moreover, both communality and factor loading should ideally be above .5 (Kaiser, 1960; Tucker, 1951). Utilizing principal component analysis and the varimax rotation method, a total of seven factors with eigenvalues over 1 were extracted (Table 3). Dark tourism storytelling produced four factors: emotionality, uniqueness, descriptiveness, and educability, while behavioral intention, flow experience, and national identity each yielded a single factor. The total variance explained was 73.352%, with a KMO value of .931 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity equaling 6,723.964 (p = .000). The communality ranged from .549 to .904, and factor loadings varied from .640 to .944, confirming the appropriateness of the exploratory factor analysis for this study.

Table 3.

Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis and Reliability Analysis.

Construct and item	Communality	Factor loading	Eigenvalue	Variance explained (%)	Cronbach’s alpha
Emotionality (EM)
EM01	.845	.862	11.813	12.479	.880
EM04	.602	.785
EM02	.709	.780
EM05	.764	.719
EM03	.568	.645
Flow experience (FE)
FE01	.787	.801	2.707	11.906	.917
FE03	.740	.782
FE02	.762	.746
FE05	.756	.707
FE04	.781	.698
Descriptiveness (DE)
DE01	.728	.771	2.004	11.226	.841
DE04	.672	.750
DE05	.574	.693
DE03	.622	.684
DE02	.549	.683
Behavioral intention (BI)
BI03	.719	.759	1.581	10.893	.907
BI04	.785	.750
BI05	.731	.729
BI01	.789	.668
BI02	.746	.640
Uniqueness (UN)
UN02	.714	.782	1.456	9.627	.848
UN01	.737	.773
UN03	.719	.766
UN04	.604	.641
National identity (NI)
NI02	.904	.944	1.246	9.183	.935
NI01	.895	.934
NI03	.852	.913
Educability (ED)
ED03	.792	.796	1.199	8.039	.861
ED01	.785	.785
ED02	.776	.743

Note. Total variance explained (%) = 73.352, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy = .931, Bartlett’s test of sphericity = 6,723.964 (p = .000).

Subsequently, the reliability of each factor was assessed by computing Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. A coefficient value above .7 is deemed acceptable (Hair et al., 2010; Nunnally, 1978). All the Cronbach’s alpha values in this study ranged from .841 to .935, signifying that the factors met the reliability criterion (Table 3).

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

A confirmatory factor analysis was performed based on the factors and items identified from the exploratory factor analysis results to validate convergent and discriminant validities. The study assessed convergent validity through factor loading (Std. λ), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). For the measurement scales to possess convergent validity, Std. λ and AVE should both exceed .5, while CR should be above .7 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988; Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010). As depicted in Table 4, all values of Std. λ (ranging from .620 to .939) and AVE (from .616 to .748) surpassed .5, and the CR (between .860 and .910) exceeded .7, confirming the convergent validity of all measurement scales.

Table 4.

Results of Convergent Validity Analysis.

Construct and item	λ	SE	CR	Std. λ	AVE	CR
Emotionality (EM)
EM01	1.000			.908	.650	.901
EM02	0.962	0.052	18.637***	.795
EM03	0.805	0.057	14.148***	.671
EM04	0.984	0.047	21.067***	.850
EM05	0.825	0.059	14.094***	.670
Uniqueness (UN)
UN01	1.000			.801	.616	.865
UN02	0.911	0.065	14.119***	.761
UN03	0.999	0.068	14.661***	.787
UN04	0.772	0.059	13.003***	.709
Descriptiveness (DE)
DE01	1.000			.819	.671	.910
DE02	0.803	0.071	11.337***	.620
DE03	0.974	0.071	13.768***	.729
DE04	1.015	0.068	14.981***	.783
DE05	0.795	0.066	12.04***	.649
Educability (ED)
ED01	1.000			.822	.672	.860
ED02	0.997	0.062	16.176***	.830
ED03	1.047	0.067	15.676***	.812
Behavioral intention (BI)
BI01	1.000			.894	.639	.898
BI02	1.005	0.045	22.188***	.869
BI03	0.980	0.062	15.764***	.719
BI04	1.034	0.051	20.119***	.827
BI05	0.916	0.052	17.482***	.765
Flow experience (FE)
FE01	1.000			.804	.655	.904
FE02	1.002	0.059	16.837***	.822
FE03	0.999	0.065	15.353***	.767
FE04	1.044	0.056	18.703***	.884
FE05	1.022	0.056	18.186***	.866
National identity (NI)
NI01	1.000			.926	.748	.899
NI02	1.015	0.035	28.638***	.939
NI03	0.879	0.037	23.903***	.864

***p < .001.

Subsequently, discriminant validity was assessed by contrasting the square roots of AVE with the correlation coefficients among the constructs. Discriminant validity is established when the square root of AVE surpasses its respective correlation coefficients (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010). Table 5 demonstrates that the square root of each AVE exceeded the correlation coefficients in its respective column or row, verifying the discriminant validity of all measurement scales.

Table 5.

Results of Discriminant Validity Analysis.

Construct	Mean	SD	EM	UN	DE	ED	BI	FE	NI
Emotionality (EM)	4.338	0.755	.806
Uniqueness (UN)	3.927	0.784	.467***	.785
Descriptiveness (DE)	4.345	0.575	.468***	.553***	.819
Educability (ED)	3.934	0.890	.436***	.588***	.585***	.819
Behavioral intention (BI)	4.008	0.894	.588***	.606***	.609***	.623***	.800
Flow experience (FE)	3.967	0.927	.645***	.658***	.645***	.641***	.705**	.809
National identity (NI)	4.115	0.761	.068	.168**	.098	.221***	.126*	.231***	.865

Note. The diagonal displays the square roots of AVE, while the off-diagonal presents the correlations among constructs.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Hypothesis Testing

For a model to be deemed fit, the criteria include CMIN/DF < 3, RMSEA < 0.08, GFI ≥ 0.90, AGFI ≥ 0.80, NFI ≥ 0.90, CFI ≥ 0.90, and IFI ≥ 0.90 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Hair et al., 2010; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1989). The model fit results in this study were CMIN/DF = 1.488, RMSEA = 0.039, GFI = 0.907, AGFI = 0.886, NFI = 0.915, CFI = 0.973, and IFI = 0.973, suggesting that the measurement model was both reasonable and exhibited a good fit.

Table 6 illustrates the paths of relationships among dark tourism storytelling, behavioral intention, and flow experience. The findings indicate that emotionality (β = .196, p < .001), uniqueness (β = .142, p = .031), descriptiveness (β = .158, p = .014), and educability (β = .196, p = .003) of dark tourism storytelling positively influenced behavioral intention. Thus, H1a, H1b, H1c, and H1d are fully supported. Similarly, emotionality (β = .327, p < .001), uniqueness (β = .252, p < .001), descriptiveness (β = .224, p < .001), and educability (β = .219, p < .001) of dark tourism storytelling had positive effects on flow experience. H2a, H2b, H2c, and H2d are likewise supported. Additionally, the results affirm H3, which posits that flow experience (β = .258, p = .001) has a positive impact on behavioral intention.

Table 6.

Results of Structural Equation Modeling.

Hypothesis	Path	B	β	SE	CR	p
H1a	Emotionality → Behavioral intention	.221	.196	0.065	3.396	<.001***
H1b	Uniqueness → Behavioral intention	.158	.142	0.073	2.156	.031*
H1c	Descriptiveness → Behavioral intention	.240	.158	0.098	2.454	.014*
H1d	Educability → Behavioral intention	.209	.196	0.070	2.980	.003**
H2a	Emotionality → Flow experience	.361	.327	0.055	6.952	<.001***
H2b	Uniqueness → Flow experience	.276	.252	0.066	4.201	<.001***
H2c	Descriptiveness → Flow experience	.333	.224	0.088	3.774	<.001***
H2d	Educability → Flow experience	.230	.219	0.063	3.636	<.001***
H3	Flow experience → Behavioral intention	.262	.258	0.082	3.218	.001**

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Mediating Effect Analysis

Bootstrap analysis was used to assess the mediating role of flow experience. If the indirect effect is significant and the confidence interval does not include 0, the mediating effect is established (Hair et al., 2017; Macho & Ledermann, 2011; Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Results from Table 7 indicate that emotionality (lower = 0.019, upper = 0.180, p = .016), uniqueness (lower = 0.012, upper = 0.178, p = .016), descriptiveness (lower = 0.006, upper = 0.166, p = .025), and educability (lower = 0.011, upper = 0.161, p = .013) of dark tourism storytelling significantly impact behavioral intention indirectly through flow experience. Consequently, H4a, H4b, H4c, and H4d are supported, indicating that flow experience mediates the relationship between dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention.

Table 7.

Mediating Effect of Flow Experience.

Hypothesis	Path	Indirecteffect	Lowerbound (BC)	Upperbound (BC)	p
H4a	Emotionality → Flow experience → Behavioral intention	0.084	0.019	0.180	.016*
H4b	Uniqueness → Flow experience → Behavioral intention	0.065	0.012	0.178	.016*
H4c	Descriptiveness → Flow experience → Behavioral intention	0.058	0.006	0.166	.025*
H4d	Educability → Flow experience → Behavioral intention	0.056	0.011	0.161	.013*

p < .05.

Moderating Effect Analysis

To examine the moderating role of national identity, hierarchical multiple regression (HMR) analysis was utilized. Prior to the HMR analysis, mean centering was applied to reduce multicollinearity between predictor variables and the constructed interactions (Iacobucci et al., 2017; Shieh, 2011). Within the models presented in Table 8, variance inflation factor (VIF) values (between 1.073 and 1.676) were below 10, suggesting no significant multicollinearity issues (Hair et al., 2010; Marquaridt, 1970; Neter et al., 1989). Furthermore, results from Model 4 (Table 8) reveal the moderating effect of national identity on the relationship between the educability (β = .147, p < .01) of dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention. Emotionality, uniqueness, and descriptiveness of dark tourism storytelling were not influenced by national identity. H5a, H5b, and H5c are rejected, while H5d is supported, thus providing a partial endorsement for H5.

Table 8.

Moderating Effect of National Identity (Std. Coefficient).

		Dependent variable: Behavioral intention
Variable	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	VIF
Constant	3.981***	3.934***	3.936***	3.904***
Control variable
Gender	−0.094	−0.032	−0.033	−0.037	1.073
Age	−0.005	−0.005	−0.005	−0.001	1.336
Education level	0.016	−0.027	−0.027	−0.023	1.247
Occupation	0.084	0.105**	0.105**	0.106**	1.195
Monthly income	−0.056	0.007	0.006	0.005	1.498
Place of residence	0.260***	0.118**	0.118**	0.113**	1.135
Independent variable
Emotionality		0.290***	0.290***	0.259***	1.486
Uniqueness		0.258***	0.259***	0.260***	1.665
Descriptiveness		0.182***	0.182***	0.171***	1.647
Educability		0.204***	0.207***	0.233***	1.676
Moderating variable
National identity			−0.014	0.017	1.157
Interaction
Emotionality × National identity				−0.028	1.174
Uniqueness × National identity				0.031	1.354
Descriptiveness × National identity				−0.043	1.353
Educability × National identity				0.147**	1.386
R ²	.088	.576	.576	.597
ΔR²	.088	.488	.000	.020
F	5.138***	42.973***	38.971***	30.666***

**p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion and Conclusion

This study empirically analyzed the structural relationships among dark tourism storytelling, behavioral intention, flow experience, and national identity. The results indicate that dark tourism storytelling significantly and positively influences both behavioral intention and flow experience, with the latter also having a positive impact on behavioral intention. Thus, dark tourism storytelling serves as a crucial driver of tourists’ behavioral intentions and a significant precursor to achieving their flow experience. Additionally, the findings confirm the mediating role of flow experience and the moderating role of national identity in the relationship between dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention. Recognizing the importance of flow experience and national identity is essential for a profound understanding of the pathway connecting dark tourism storytelling to behavioral intention. These insights not only enhance the theoretical understanding of storytelling but also enrich dark tourism research. Furthermore, they offer guidance for the practical application of storytelling within the realm of dark tourism.

The results provide compelling evidence that dark tourism storytelling significantly influences tourists’ behavioral intentions, fostering a deeper connection between tourists and dark tourism destinations. This is attributed to storytelling’s ability to not only evoke strong feelings and emotions, such as empathy and compassion, but also craft a unique and engaging experience, allowing tourists to feel distinct and valued (Li & Liu, 2020; Nabi & Green, 2015). Detailed and vivid storytelling furnishes tourists with invaluable insights about the destination, enhancing the meaning and educational value of their visits (S. H. Kim et al., 2020; Wyatt et al., 2021).

Furthermore, this study confirms that flow experience acts as a pivotal intermediary variable between dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention. That is, the positive influence of dark tourism storytelling on behavioral intention is partially mediated by the favorable effect of flow experience on the same. This mediation arises because dark tourism storytelling can foster immersion and engagement, leading to a flow experience—representing the optimal psychological state tourists encounter when partaking in dark tourism activities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Jackson & Eklund, 2004; Wu & Liang, 2011). Achieving this state of flow in dark tourism positively correlates with tourists’ behavioral intentions.

Moreover, it further confirmed that national identity plays an essential moderating role, influencing tourists’ behavioral intentions through its interaction with the educability of dark tourism storytelling. Notably, national identity, by itself, does not influence tourists’ behavioral intentions. This is because tourists with a robust national identity might perceive the dark tourism destination as either a threat or a challenge to their national identity (Shen et al., 2021). Nonetheless, an individual’s national identity can shape their reactions to dark tourism storytelling. This influence is especially apparent in their response to the educability of dark tourism storytelling. When individuals possess a pronounced sense of national identity, they display greater interest in understanding the historical and cultural significance of dark tourism destinations and tend to respond positively, as evidenced by return visits and recommendations (Lever et al., 2022; Shen et al., 2021; Stokburger-Sauer, 2011).

Theoretical Implications

First, this study introduced a fundamental conceptual framework for dark tourism storytelling, comprising four vital attributes: emotionality, uniqueness, descriptiveness, and educability. Building on these attributes, the research further verified the significant positive influence of dark tourism storytelling on behavioral intention. The study’s findings align with prior research on storytelling enhancing tourists’ behavioral intentions (Choi, 2021; J. H. Kim & Youn, 2016; S. H. Kim et al., 2020) and augment the theory of dark tourism and storytelling. These four attributes of dark tourism storytelling can boost behavioral intention, underscoring that effective storytelling techniques are essential for enriching the tourism experience (Moscardo, 2020; Mossberg, 2008; Woodside, 2010). Of these storytelling attributes, emotionality and educability exert the most substantial influence on behavioral intention, followed by descriptiveness, with uniqueness coming last. These storytelling determinants can predict tourists’ behavioral intentions.

Second, this study underscored that flow experience serves as a pivotal intermediary variable linking dark tourism storytelling to behavioral intention and introduced an innovative application of flow experience in dark tourism. Specifically, drawing on research by Ding and Hung (2021), Lu et al. (2022), and Ye et al. (2022), the findings deepened our understanding of the connection between flow experience and behavioral intention within dark tourism. Dark tourism storytelling, through the medium of flow experience, fosters more positive post-experience behaviors. The four attributes of dark tourism storytelling can elicit this flow experience, embodying optimal encounters. Tourists attaining this optimal experience through dark tourism storytelling are more inclined to revisit and share their personal experiences of dark tourism (Kuo et al., 2016).

Third, the study’s paramount discovery is that national identity has a crucial moderating effect on the relationship between dark tourism storytelling and behavioral intention, particularly when interacting with educability. This outcome reaffirms the central role of national identity in the dark tourism journey (Gieling & Ong, 2016). Moreover, the notion of national identity can act as a catalyst to drive tourist behaviors (Ali et al., 2016). Within dark tourism storytelling, educability’s role and significance overshadow other attributes, and the positive mindset fostered through education extends to the realm of national identity, imbuing it with a key supportive and catalytic role in enhancing tourist behavior. This revelation offers fresh insights and approaches to better grasp experiences and actions in dark tourism.

Practical Implications

First, tourism managers should fully utilize the attributes of dark tourism storytelling to devise storytelling strategies for dark tourism destinations. Dark tourism destinations are locales that hold collective memories and commemorate historical wounds (Winter, 2009). Therefore, storytelling should evoke emotional resonance in tourists. Within dark tourism, crafting stories anchored in local history, events, and figures is essential to leave a lasting impression on tourists, thereby preserving local culture and highlighting local distinctiveness. Emphasizing theme-appropriate, comprehensible, detailed, clear, and vivid narrations is pivotal to offering tourists immersive and empathetic dark tourism experiences (S. H. Kim et al., 2020). Additionally, the educational significance and value of storytelling must be acknowledged, catering to tourists’ desire for in-depth knowledge and pertinent information in dark tourism (Iliev, 2021).

Second, tourism managers should employ various effective storytelling techniques to enhance tourists’ dark tourism experiences and thereby promote their behavioral intentions (Shen et al., 2021). Integrating participatory activities and projects into storytelling can deepen the connection between tourists and dark tourism destinations. Leveraging advanced technologies, such as Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality, is crucial to cultivating an empathetic dark atmosphere for tourists (Jeong & Kim, 2018). The recruitment and training of knowledgeable docents should be prioritized to provide accurate and scientific interpretations of stories (S. H. Kim et al., 2020). Additionally, auxiliary storytelling tools, including signages, printed materials, souvenirs, and applications, should be strategically implemented, offering tourists more avenues to fully comprehend the narrations.

Third, tourism managers should effectively cultivate a flow experience through storytelling to offer tourists the optimal dark tourism experience. From a managerial perspective, tourism leaders should delve into the nuances of flow experience (J. J. Kim & Kim, 2019) to design storytelling strategies that enhance this experience in dark tourism. In terms of destinations, the resources of dark tourism destinations should be leveraged to establish not only an environment that fosters a flow experience but also an ambiance that delivers the optimal dark tourism experience. Considering the tourists’ perspective, it’s essential to survey them (M. Kim & Thapa, 2018) and craft stories tailored to stimulate the flow experience based on their feedback.

Lastly, tourists’ sense of national identity should be actively nurtured and reinforced, and it should also be invoked and awakened through dark tourism storytelling. Dark tourism storytelling should heighten tourists’ awareness of the intimate link between the individual and national destinies by interpreting the suffering of victims. This interpretation aims to enhance tourists’ sense of national belonging (Shen et al., 2021). Collective national traits and symbols, such as accent, attire, citizenship status, and other markers, should be integrated into storytelling to resonate with tourists, as national identity is rooted in shared feelings and sentiments (S. N. Zhang et al., 2021). Significantly, education is an effective tool for fostering national identity and patriotism (Qu et al., 2021). Tourism managers should develop stories centered on national history, culture, and knowledge from an educational standpoint, ensuring a harmonious blend of educational value and national identity in dark tourism storytelling.

Limitations and Future Research

This study, while making significant contributions, has certain limitations. First, the foundational conceptual framework for dark tourism storytelling proposed here centers on the universal features of dark tourism narrations. With further in-depth research and theoretical refinement, this framework could be expanded to encompass additional attributes. Second, even though the chosen site represents a typical dark tourism destination in China, the findings might not be universally applicable to all forms of dark tourism given its pronounced holocaust tourism characteristics. It is recommended that future research be conducted in a wider range of dark tourism destinations. Third, this study approached Chinese national identity from a comprehensive viewpoint of the Chinese nation. Further studies focusing on specific ethnic groups within China warrant more extensive academic attention. Fourth, findings related to Chinese national identity may not translate seamlessly to other nations due to the investigation’s context within a multi-ethnic socialist country. Future research could use this study as a basis to delve into the national identities of various countries, taking into account each nation’s unique context. Finally, future studies, building on this one, could examine the distinct characteristics of different tourist groups. Segmenting tourist populations for differential validation and comparative analysis would be a valuable academic endeavor.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The author(s) thank the editors and anonymous reviewers of this journal for their constructive comments.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

This study was conducted ethically. All participants gave informed consent and were aware that the survey was anonymous and solely for academic use.

ORCID iDs

Ze Lin

Siyu Zhang

Wii-Joo Yhang

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available and can be accessed via the provided DOI.

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