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Abstract

Chronotype is defined as individuals’ preferences regarding the timing of their sleep and wake cycle. An individual’s chronotype is associated with many factors such as age, sex, and lifestyle. This study was conducted to evaluate the relationship between chronotype and emotional eating,depression, anxiety, stress, body weight, eating disorder risk, and life satisfaction in university students. This present study included 511 Turkish university students with a mean age of 20.0 ± 1.93 years. The anthropometric measurements (body weight, and height) were recorded. Additionally, the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ), the Emotional Eater Questionnaire (EEQ), the Sick, Control, One stone, Fat, Food (SCOFF) Questionnaire, the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), and the Contentment with Life Assessment Scale (CLAS) were used to collect data. The evening-type individuals had significantly higher total EEQ and DASS-21 subscale scores than the morning-type individuals. The morning-type individuals had significantly higher total CLAS scores than the evening-type individuals. There was no significant difference between the groups in terms of their SCOFF total scores and BMI values. This showed that chronotype is related to emotional eating, depression, anxiety, stress, and life satisfaction in university students, but there is not related to the risk of eating disorders and BMI. The regulation of the circadian system will be useful for improving eating behavior and mood, as well as weight loss programs. It is thought that further long-term follow-up studies with different samples would contribute to this field.

Plain language summary

Relationship between chronotype with emotional eating, eating disorder risk and depression

Keywords

chronotype emotional eating eating disorder risk depression body mass index

Introduction

The circadian rhythm is defined as the cycle of biological and metabolic events in a 24-hour period (Hawley, et al., 2020). The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) located in the hypothalamus regulated the circadian rhythm. SCN regulates the sleep-wake cycle and controls physiological events such as hormone release (Roenneberg et al., 2007). A chronotype is defined as individuals’ preferences regarding the timing of their sleep and wake cycle, as well as individual differences in this regard, and it is correlated with many factors such as age, sex, genetics, length of daylight exposure, and lifestyle (Almoosawi et al., 2019; Hawley et al., 2020; Horne & Östberg, 1976; Roenneberg et al., 2007; Van den Berg et al., 2018). Horne and Östberg (1976) divided chronotypes into three main as the morning type, the intermediate type, and the evening type. Morning-type individuals sleep and wake up early, whereas evening-type individuals sleep late at night and have difficulty waking up in the morning. Additionally, it was reported that morning hours are the time when morning people feel good, and their performance is better, while this time is in the afternoon for evening-type individuals (Pündük et al., 2005).

Differences in chronotype may lead to different health-related outcomes. It has been shown that chronotype is associated with the risk of various diseases such as metabolic syndrome, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM), cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and depression (Almoosawi et al., 2019; Aoun et al., 2019; Hawley et al., 2020), and it affects obesity (Aoun et al., 2019; Lucassen et al., 2013; Merikanto et al., 2014). Even though it has been shown that the obesity rate is higher in morning-type individuals (Arslan et al., 2022; Çakır et al., 2018; Merikanto et al., 2014), Lucassen et al. (2013) stated that the rate of obesity is higher in evening-type people. Chronotype can cause obesity by affecting eating habits and energy intake, as well as emotional eating behavior, the number of meals, depression, anxiety, and stress (Aoun et al., 2019; Van den Berg et al., 2018).

Eating disorders, which have had an increasing prevalence recently, are affected by many factors such as nutritional habits, life satisfaction, psychological illnesses, as well as sociodemographic characteristics (dos Santos Quaresma et al., 2021; Hawley et al., 2020; Pohjolainen et al., 2016). One of these factors is thought to be chronotype. A reason for an increase/decrease in the risk of eating disorders, which varies according to chronotype, and might be food preferences that differ according to chronotype (dos Santos Quaresma et al., 2021; Romo-Nava et al., 2020). The eating behavior of morning-type individuals include healthier foods than those of evening-type individuals (dos Santos Quaresma et al., 2021). On the other hand, it was shown that eating disorders such as bulimia nervosa, binge eating syndrome, as well as less vegetable and fruit consumption, and unhealthier food consumption were more frequently encountered in evening-type individuals (Romo-Nava et al., 2020). An eating disorder is a condition often accompanied by depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders (Martinussen et al., 2017; Qian et al., 2021). It was shown that chronotype can be associated with parameters related to eating behavior, depression, and anxiety (Aoun et al., 2019).

Finally, there are studies in the literature showing that chronotype may be associated with emotional eating as well as depression and anxiety (dos Santos Quaresma et al., 2021; Konttinen et al., 2014). Emotional eating behavior is accepted as a common dimension of all eating disorders (Rotella et al., 2015) and are more common in evening-type individuals (Konttinen et al., 2014). Although studies have shown that there is a relationship between chronotype and eating disorders, the mechanism is not clearly understood (Lucassen et al., 2013). Therefore, there is a need for further studies on chronotype, emotional eating behavior, and eating disorders (Aoun et al., 2019).

University students, an important part of society, may also differ according to their chronotypes. Factors such as being away from their families, being responsible for their own nutrition, and financial income during the university period may affect factors associated with chronotypes such as their food choices, negative eating behavior, sleep-wake hours, and emotional states (Bernardo et al., 2017; Çakır et al., 2018). We think that in university students, it is important to regulate the parameters related to chronotype preferences in preventing the risk of chronic diseases such as obesity, DM, depression, and CVD. We hypothesized that emotional eating, the risk of eating disorders, body weight, depression, anxiety, stress, and life satisfaction may be affected by chronotype. In this study, it was aimed to examine the relationship between chronotype and these parameters in university students.

Material and Methods

This study was conducted online with the participation of 511 Turkish university students over the age of 18. The G*Power (version 3.1.9.7, Universitat Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany) program was used to determine the required sample size. According to the results of the power analysis, it was needed to include at least 218 participants over the age of 18 in a 95% confidence interval and at a 5% statistical significance value. The sample was chosen randomly, and healthy adults who volunteered to participate in the study were included. The study questionnaire was sent to 1200 students, and 538 participants completed the questionnaire. In the questionnaire, “Do you have any disease that you have been diagnosed with by the doctor?” the question was asked. Those with an eating disorder, sleep or psychiatric disorder, sleep-related health problems, a mental illness, and a medical condition affecting their eating behavior, sleep, and mood were excluded (n: 27) from the study. The questionnaire form was sent to university students via WhatsApp or e-mail. The students were included in the study on a voluntary basis.

This study was conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki and all procedures involving human subjects were approved by Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee of Tokat Gaziosmanpaşa University (Number: 02.11, Date: 28.01.2022). Before the beginning of the questionnaires, informed consent was obtained from the participants and all participation was anonymous.

Within the scope of the questionnaire form, some demographic characteristics (e.g., age, sex, income status), and body weight and height were questioned based on self-report. Additionally, the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) (Horne & Östberg, 1976; Pündük et al., 2005), the Emotional Eater Questionnaire (EEQ) (Arslantaş et al., 2019; Garaulet et al., 2012), the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995; Sarıçam, 2018), the SCOFF Questionnaire (Aydemir et al., 2015; Hill et al.,2010), and the Contentment with Life Assessment Scale (CLAS) (Akın & Yalnız, 2015; Lavallee et al., 2007) were included in the questionnaire form.

Evaluation of Body Weight

The body weight (kg) and height (cm) values of the participants were recorded based on self-report. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using the body weight and height of the individuals. The calculation was made with the following equation: BMI = Body weight (kg)/Height (m)². According to the classification by the World Health Organization (2023), those below 18.50 kg/m² are classified as underweight, those between 18.50 and 24.99 kg/m² are considered to have normal weight, those between 25.0 and 29.99 kg/m² are considered overweight, and those above 30.0 kg/m² are considered obese.

Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ)

A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms, developed by Horne and Östberg (1976), were used to determine the chronotypes of the participants. The validity and reliability study of the scale in Turkish was performed by Pündük et al. (2005). This Likert-type scale has a total score between 16 and 86. Those who score 41 and below are classified as evening-type, those with a score between 42 and 58 are classified as intermediate-type, and those with a score of 59 and above are classified as morning-type individuals (Horne & Östberg, 1976; Pündük et al., 2005). The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient of the Turkish version of the scale was reported as .78, while in this study, this coefficient was calculated as .75.

Emotional Eater Questionnaire (EEQ)

The Emotional Eater Questionnaire (EEQ) was used to evaluate emotional eating. The scale was developed by Garaulet et al. (2012), and it was adapted to Turkish by Arslantaş et al. (2019). It consists of 10 items and three subscales, namely, disinhibition, type of food, and guilt. The items are answered on a 4-point Likert-type scale (“0” Never, “1” Sometimes, “2” Usually, and “3” Always). The score range is between 0 and 30. Higher scores indicate a higher level of emotional eating behavior. Garaulet et al. (2012), stated that when a score between 0 and 5: non-emotional eater, 6 and 10: low emotional eater, 11 and 20: emotional eater, 21 and 30: very emotional eater. In the Turkish version of the scale, the cut-off point was shown to be 21 (Arslantaş et al., 2019). Arslantaş et al. (2019) reported that a person with a score of 21 and above on the Turkish version of the scale can be classified as an emotional eater (Arslantaş et al., 2019). Arslantaş et al. (2019) stated the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the Turkish version of EEQ as .81, while this coefficient was found .86 in this study.

Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21)

The depression, anxiety, and stress statuses of the participants in this study were evaluated with the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). The scale was developed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995), and its Turkish validity and reliability study was conducted by Sarıçam (2018). Scoring is made according to the answers given to items related to depression, anxiety, and stress (0 = Never, 1 = Sometimes, 2 = Quite often, 3 = Always). Higher scores indicate higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Sarıçam (2018) reported the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of the scale as .85 for depression, .85 for anxiety, and .81 for stress. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were found as .88 for depression, .84 for anxiety, and .84 for stress.

SCOFF Questionnaire

The SCOFF Questionnaire was used to evaluate eating disorders. This scale was developed by Hill et al. (2010), and its Turkish validity and reliability study was performed by Aydemir et al. (2015). It consists of 5 items, and 1 point is given to each item that the participant agrees to. An individual with a score of 2 or higher is considered at risk of eating disorders (Aydemir et al., 2015). Aydemir et al. (2015) reported the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the scale as .74, whereas this coefficient was determined as .71 in this study.

Contentment With Life Assessment Scale (CLAS)

The Contentment with Life Assessment Scale (CLAS) was developed by Lavallee et al. (2007). Its Turkish validity and reliability study was performed by Akın et al. (2015). CLAS measures the self-reported life satisfaction levels of individuals. Each item is scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1: Strongly disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Sometimes disagree, 4: Undecided, 5: Sometimes I agree, 6: Agree, 7: Strongly agree). Items 3 and 4 in the five-item scale are inversely scored. High scores indicate high levels of satisfaction with life. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the Turkish version of the scale was reported as .73 (Akın & Yalnız, 2015), while it was .72 in this study.

Statistical Analyses

Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS 24.0 program. The G*Power (version 3.1.9.7, Universitat Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany) program was used to determine the required sample size. Descriptive values in the study are expressed as frequency (n), percentage (%), arithmetic mean and standard deviation (SD) values. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the mean scores of three different chrono-types groups (morning, intermediate, and evening types). Post-Hoc analysis with Bonferroni correction was used if ANOVA showed statistical significance (p < .016). Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the correlation between two quantitative variables. The effects of emotional eating, depression, anxiety, stress status, eating disorder risk, and life satisfaction scores on chronotypes were investigated by multiple linear regression analysis. For all statistical analyses, the level of statistical significance was accepted as p < .05.

Results

General information about the participants, their BMI, and chronotype classification are shown in Table 1. While 14.3% of the participants (mean age: 20.0 ± 1.93 years) were male, 85.7% were female. The mean BMI value of the participants was 21.8 ± 3.66 kg/m². Accordingly, 14.1% were underweight, 69.5% had a normal weight, 12.3% were overweight, and 4.1% were obese. The rates of morning-, intermediate-, and evening-type individuals were 22.9, 49.1, and 28.0%, respectively. The frequency of emotional eaters was 3.4% in morning type, 8.8% in intermediate type, and 11.9% in evening type (p = .048).

Table 1.

General Information About Individuals, BMI, and Chronotype Classification (n: 511).

Gender	n	%
Male	73	14.3
Female	438	85.7
Family income
<2,500	110	21.5
2,500–5,000	204	39.9
5,000–7,500	107	20.9
>7,500	90	17.6
Place accommodation
Parents	162	31.7
Dormitory/guesthouse	295	57.7
Friends	37	7.3
Relatives	3	0.6
Alone	14	2.7
BMI classification
Underweight	72	14.1
Normal	355	69.5
Overweight	63	12.3
Obese	21	4.1
Chronotype classification
Morning type	117	22.9
Intermediate type	251	49.1
Evening type	143	28.0

Note. BMI = body mass index.

The distributions of the EEQ, DASS-21, SCOFF, CLAS scores, and BMI values of the participants based on their chronotypes are shown in Table 2. The evening-type participants had significantly higher EEQ total scores and inability to prevent the desire to eat subscale scores than the morning-type participants (p < .05). In DASS-21, the depression, anxiety, and stress subscale scores of the evening-type participants were significantly higher than the scores of both the morning-type and intermediate-type participants (p < .05). The morning-type participants had significantly higher total CLAS scores than the evening-type participants (p < .05). There was no significant difference among the groups in terms of their SCOFF total scores or BMI values (p > .05).

Table 2.

The EEQ, DASS-21, SCOFF, CLAS Scores, and BMI Values of the Participants Based on Their Chronotypes.

	Morning type (n: 117)	Intermediate type (n: 251)	Evening type (n: 143)	p
EEQ
Total score	9.8 ± 5.29^a	11.5 ± 5.93^a,b	12.3 ± 6.65^b	.004
Disinhibition	5.3 ± 3.43^a	6.2 ± 3.82^a,b	6.8 ± 4.45^b	.007
Type of food	2.7 ± 1.37^a	3.1 ± 1.47^b	3.5 ± 1.57^c	<.001
Guilt	1.7 ± 1.36	2.0 ± 1.56	1.9 ± 1.57	.280
DASS-21
Depression	6.2 ± 4.85^a	7.8 ± 5.02^b	9.4 ± 5.51^c	<.001
Anxiety	5.1 ± 4.28^a	6.1 ± 4.34^a	7.6 ± 4.95^b	<.001
Stress	6.9 ± 4.45^a	7.5 ± 4.44^a	8.9 ± 4.92^b	.001
SCOFF	1.0 ± 1.16	1.2 ± 1.24	1.3 ± 1.29	.285
CLAS	20.4 ± 6.01^a	19.3 ± 5.12^a,b	18.4 ± 5.46^b	.013
BMI (kg/m²)	22.2 ± 4.02	21.9 ± 3.32	21.8 ± 3.94	.581

Note. EEQ = Emotional Eater Questionnaire; DASS-21 = Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21; BMI = Body Mass Index; CLAS = Contentment with Life Assessment Scale.

a,b,c

For groups of different character, p < .016 (ANOVA, Bonferroni correction).

The results of the analysis of the relationships between the chronotypes (MEQ) of the participants and their EEQ, DASS-21, SCOFF, CLAS scores, and BMI values are given in Table 3. A negative correlation was found between the MEQ scores of the participants and their scores in the overall EEQ and the inability to prevent the desire to eat and type of food subscales (p < .05). A negative correlation was found between the MEQ scores of the participants and their scores in the DASS-21 subscales of depression, anxiety, and stress. Although there was no significant correlation was found between MEQ and SCOFF scores or BMI values, a positive correlation was found between MEQ and CLAS scores.

Table 3.

The Results of the Analysis on the Relationships Between the Chronotypes (MEQ) of the Participants and Their EEQ, DASS-21, SCOFF, CLAS Scores, and BMI.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
1. MEQ total score
r	1
p
2. EEQ total score
r	−0.126	1
p	.004
3. EEQ1
r	−0.127	0.956	1
p	.004	<.001
4. EEQ2
r	−0.161	0.769	0.635	1
p	<.001	<.001	<.001
5. EEQ3
r	−0.013	0.734	0.578	0.422	1
p	.767	<.001	<.001	<.001
6. Depression
r	−0.237	0.346	0.332	0.313	0.206	1
p	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001
7. Anxiety
r	−0.199	0.420	0.381	0.386	0.299	0.689	1
p	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001
8. Stress
r	−0.161	0.403	0.364	0.358	0.301	0.781	0.782	1
p	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001
9. SCOFF
r	−0.056	0.379	0.353	0.188	0.406	0.120	0.184	0.159	1
p	.206	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	.007	<.001	<.001
10. CLAS
r	0.168	−0.223	−0.221	−0.174	−0.141	−0.543	−0.346	−0.375	−0.108	1
p	<.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	.001	<.001	<.001	<.001	.014
11. BMI (kg/m²)
r	0.057	0.206	0.228	0.084	0.145	0.007	0.009	0.001	0.142	−0.006	1
p	.199	<.001	<.001	.048	.001	.880	.833	.987	.001	.896

Note. MEQ = Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire; EEQ = Emotional Eater Questionnaire; EEQ1 = Disinhibition; EEQ2 = type of food; EEQ3 = guilt; BMI = body mass index; CLAS = contentment with life assessment scale.

The results of the analysis on the effects of emotional eating, depression, anxiety, and stress status, eating disorder risk, and life satisfaction scores on chronotypes are presented in Table 4. It was found that the evening-type participants had a higher likelihood to be more depressed. A one-unit decrease in depression scores would contribute to a change in the participants’ statuses from morning-type individuals to intermediate-type individuals. A one-unit increase in depression scores would lower chronotype scores by 0.370 units.

Table 4.

The Results of the Analysis on the Effects of Emotional Eating, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Status, Eating Disorder Risk, and Life Satisfaction Scores on Chronotypes.

	B	SE	p	β (OR)	95% CI for EXP(B)
	B	SE	p	β (OR)	Lower bound	Upper bound
MEQ total score	50.274	2.133	.000		46.084	54.465
EEQ total score	−0.059	0.072	.410	−.042	−0.201	0.082
Depression	−0.370	0.128	.004	−.226	−0.621	−0.120
Anxiety	−0.230	0.134	.088	−.123	−0.493	0.034
Stress	0.274	0.153	.074	.148	−0.027	0.575
SCOFF	−0.061	0.323	.849	−.009	−0.695	0.572
CLAS	0.076	0.081	.347	.049	−0.083	0.236

Note. Multiple linear regression analysis R² = 0.68 (p < .001) Coefficient of regression, SE = standard error of mean; MEQ = Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire; EEQ = Emotional Eater Questionnaire; CLAS = Contentment with Life Assessment Scale.

Discussion

According to the results of our study, emotional eating rates were higher in the evening-type participants than in the morning-type participants, and emotional eating decreased as the participants’ chronotype scores increased (p < .05). Depression, anxiety, and stress were higher in the evening-type participants than in both the morning- and intermediate-type participants (p < .05). A one-unit increase in depression scores would lower chronotype scores by 0.370 units. Life satisfaction was higher in the morning-type participants than that in the evening-type participants (p < .05). There was no significant difference in the BMI values and the risk of having eating disorders of the participants according to their chronotypes (p > .05).

In recent years, it was thought that arrangements in the circadian rhythm to prevent the risk of disease may be important (Knutson & Von Schantz, 2018). Being an evening-type person is associated with the risk of conditions such as CVD, Type 2 DM, and depression (Almoosawi et al., 2019; Aoun et al., 2019; Hawley et al., 2020). Additionally, obesity, which is a significant component associated with the risk of various diseases, is also related to chronotypes (Putterman & Linden, 2004). Nevertheless, this relationship has not yet been completely clarified yet. The chronotype is a modifier of the relationship between meal timing and obesity (Roßbach et al.,2018; Zerón-Rugerioet al., 2019). Zerón-Rugerioet al. (2019) found a positive association between eating jet lag, which is a marker of variability of meal timing on weekends versus weekdays, and BMI independent of social jet lag and chronotype. Also, the chronotype and social jet lag were significantly associated with eating jet lag. A higher tendency toward the evening and/or greater social jet lag would be associated with a greater eating jet lag (Zerón-Rugerioet al., 2019). On the other hand, social jet lag is the greatest in individuals with evening-types, and it is associated with unhealthy eating habits, cardiometabolic factors, and obesity (Malone et al., 2016; Roenneberg et al., 2019).

In addition, a study showing that evening-type individuals have higher BMI values and adipose tissue (Lucassen et al., 2013), and there are studies in the literature that have associated these individuals with lower BMI (Çakır et al., 2018; Merikanto et al., 2014). Harb et al. (2012) reported that there was no relationship between BMI and chronotype. Similarly, in this study, there was no difference in BMI values according to chronotype (p > .05). Emotional eating, which is thought to be related to chronotype and BMI, was associated with increased BMI values (Aoun et al., 2019; Asiäl et al., 2022). Similarly, in this study, it was seen that BMI values increased as emotional eating scores increased (p < .05). And also in this study, it was seen that emotional eating scores were higher in the evening-type participants than in the morning-type participants, and emotional eating scores decreased as chronotype scores increased (p < .05). It is thought that evening-type individuals have more difficulty in achieving emotional regulation, which may also affect their eating behavior (Van den Berg et al., 2018). However, possible mechanisms explaining the relationship between these issues and chronotype are unclear. The regulation of emotional eating behavior and chronotype may be effective in reducing the risk of both obesity and metabolic diseases. The evaluation of dietary intake, nutritional habits, and physical activity status may be important in evaluating the relationships among chronotype, emotional eating, eating jetlag, social jetlag, and BMI.

Studies have demonstrated that chronotype may be associated with depression and stress (Aoun et al., 2019; Hirata et al., 2007; Roenneberg et al., 2007; Van den Berg et al., 2018). Hirata et al. (2007) showed in university students that being an evening-type individual was more associated with depressive symptoms than being a morning-type individual. Similarly, in this study, it was seen that the depression, anxiety, and stress scores of the evening-type participants were higher in comparison to the morning- and intermediate-type participants (p < .05). Also one-unit increase in depression scores would lower chronotype scores by 0.370 units. Chronotypes and changes in depression, anxiety, and stress levels are associated due to various reasons. One of these reasons may be life satisfaction (Randler, 2008). In this study, life satisfaction levels were higher in the morning-type participants than that in the evening-type participants (p < .05). This may be because being an evening-type individual is associated with higher levels of stress hormones (Lucassen et al., 2013). Other reasons may be evening-type individuals smoke more and consume more alcohol than intermediate-type and morning-type individuals, and it was reported that this situation may increase the risk of depressive symptoms (Van den Berg et al., 2018). Another reason may be that times of light exposure are different for different chronotypes (Bedrosian & Nelson, 2013). The shorter duration of exposure to sunlight among evening-type individuals may adversely affect their biological clock and mood (Bedrosian & Nelson, 2013). It is thought that longitudinal studies examining chronotype and depression may be useful in determining the relationship between these two variables more clearly.

Many factors such as eating habits and mood changes can affect eating disorders (dos Santos Quaresma et al., 2021; Hawley et al., 2020; Pohjolainen et al., 2016). A systematic review revealed that chronotype can affect eating behavior (Aoun et al., 2019), and it was argued that bright light therapy can be effective for treating eating disorders (Beauchamp & Lundgren, 2016). It was reported that morning-type individuals show more regular eating behavior (Almoosawi et al., 2019), and their emotional state is more regular compared with evening-type individuals (Van den Berg et al., 2018). However, while there was no relationship between chronotype scores and eating disorder risk levels in this study (p > .05), it was observed that as the risk of having eating disorders increased, depression, anxiety, stress scores, and BMI values increased, and life satisfaction levels decreased (p < .05). Also, Aoun et al. (2019) showed that food addiction and hunger sensitivity were higher in evening-type people. Similarly, Arslan et al. (2022) observed that the morning-type students tended to be obese and that these students demonstrated fewer addictive eating behavior. Although studies have shown a relationship between chronotype and eating disorders, the mechanisms of this relationship have not been fully explained (Konttinen et al., 2014). Longitudinal studies examining conditions such as emotional eating, BMI, depression, stress, and anxiety that may be related to the relationship between chronotype and eating disorders may be useful in explaining these mechanisms.

Limitations

Data on the height and body weight values of the participants based on their self-reports was a limitation of this study. In this cross-sectional study, limitation of the study was that the distributions of the number of male and female participants were not similar. Although similar numbers of male and female students were given questionnaires, and the number of replies from male students was lower. Finally, the analyses in this study did not take into account data about personal factors that could influence emotional states such as working outside school (especially if working at multiple jobs), participating in extracurricular activities such as sports, music, exercise habits, or recent life changes, including the death of a loved one, and an unfamiliar new town. Despite the limitations, chronotype was related to emotional eating, depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction in this study, which provides important data for further studies.

Conclusion

This present study showed that chronotype related to emotional eating, depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction in university students. Emotional eating, depression, anxiety, and stress levels were higher, and life satisfaction levels were lower in the evening-type participants than in the morning-type participants. There was no significant difference between the eating disorder risk levels and BMI values of the participants according to their chronotypes.

We think that this study, which evaluated the relationship of chronotype with emotional eating, depression, stress, anxiety, body weight, eating disorder risk, and life satisfaction, will contribute to the literature. Regulating parameters that cause this change may be important in reducing the risk of diseases such as depression and anxiety that may be related to chronotypes. To plan the sleep patterns of students, the formation of education policies that will reorganize their course loads may contribute to the sleep-wake cycles of these students. Additionally, university students can be supported with social activities, and their emotional states can be positively affected. Policies that will encourage healthy eating in university students and practices toward healthy nutrition are important in terms of maintaining both the ideal body weight and health of students. Hence, we believe that there is a need for longitudinal studies related to chronotypes, food intake, body weight, depressive symptoms, and eating behavior in different age groups. Long-term follow-up studies with different samples for the regulating the circadian system in the future will contribute to this field.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the university students who participated in this study and Gazi University Academic Writing Application and Research Center.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethics Statement

This study was conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki and all procedures involving human subjects were approved by Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee of Tokat Gaziosmanpaşa University (Number: 02.11, Date: 28.01.2022). Before the beginning of the questionnaires, informed consent was obtained from all the participants and all participation was anonymous.

ORCID iD

Feride Ayyıldız

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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