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Abstract

The present study was conducted to investigate the moderating role of psychological flexibility in the relationship between organizational commitment, workaholism, job security, and corporate entrepreneurship among information technology workers in Accra, Ghana. A total of 248 information technology workers purposively selected completed the Organizational Commitment Scale, the Dutch Work Addiction Scale, Job Insecurity Scale, the Work-Related Acceptance and Action Questionnaire, and the Entrepreneurial Behavior Scale. The results showed that job security, workaholism, and organizational commitment significantly predicted corporate entrepreneurship. Psychological flexibility moderated the relationship between organizational commitment, workaholism, and corporate entrepreneurship but not the relationship between job security and corporate entrepreneurship. The findings underscore the need for the development of interventions that would increase psychological flexibility in organizational settings.

Keywords

corporate entrepreneurship psychological flexibility organizational commitment workaholism job security Ghana

Introduction

The relationship between corporate entrepreneurship and it predictors is simplistic on its own, and there is evidence that the variation in results may be due to the influence of moderators (Qiao & Wang, 2009; Takeuchi, Chen, & Lepak, 2009; Taylor, Levy, Bayacigiller, & Beechler, 2008). In these studies, however, it has been agreed that workaholism and commitment are not enough for one to engage in certain creative acts. The marked dissimilarity between the different studies in their findings on the strength of the association between corporate entrepreneurship and the predictors indicates the existence of moderating factors (Giannini & Scabia, 2014). The identification of such moderators is an important step in the understanding of corporate entrepreneurship. It has been suggested that there could be a particular resilience that allows one to focus on targeted performance in every situation irrespective of risks. One of such common resilience resources is psychological flexibility. The importance of this characteristic has been adequately emphasized in clinical and organizational settings (Bond, Lloyd, & Guenole, 2013; Fledderus, Bohlmeijer, Smit, & Westerhof, 2010). The adoption of psychological flexibility is, therefore, important to understand the driving force of corporate entrepreneurship among information technology workers.

The rate of technological change and growth in advancing businesses using information technology has caused a shift in attention to rather examine predictors of business successes (Nikoloski, 2014). In this 20th century, the influence of technology has been felt in many areas of personal, economic, and health spheres (Wyche & Steinfield, 2016). The increased sophistication of consumers as well as the increase in entrepreneurship has led to businesses who understand the role of information technology in chalking success. Several behaviors have been proposed to help businesses to survive in such fierce and competitive environments (Reeves & Deimler, 2011). Those behaviors that have proven to be beneficial consist of change, creativity, innovation, and constant search for new solutions to new and existing problems. Arthi and Mohan (2007) suggested that a behavior commonly referred to as corporate entrepreneurship which involves risk taking and innovativeness can help revitalize an organization. This behavior, they believed, could lead to the inculcation of certain organizational values as well as good financial performance of the individual and the organization.

The current study conceptualized corporate entrepreneurship to mean innovativeness, risk taking, change orientation, and opportunism (Lau, Shaffer, Fai Chan, & Wing Yan Man, 2012). Other notable studies have indicated the importance of studying corporate entrepreneurship with work variables in organizational settings (Hornsby, Kuratko, & Zahra, 2002; Kuratko, Ireland, Covin, & Hornsby, 2005; Paunovic & Dima, 2014; Schmelter, Mauer, Börsch, & Brettel, 2010). Notable among them are studies carried on job security, workaholism, and organizational commitment. These linkages have been of great interest in research because they have been found to be strong predictors of corporate entrepreneurship (Burke, 2001; Paunovic & Dima, 2014).

Information technology has over the years provided support to organizations in terms of knowledge and communication technology (Chou & Shao, 2014). Its importance has duly been demonstrated in some studies (Shao & Lin, 2016; Sung, 2015). The need, therefore, for its sustainability has been of great concern because of the benefits being derived by the public and private sector organizations. Recently, the increased rate of unemployment has also increased competitiveness among employees including those in the information technology organizations. Literature has, therefore, suggested that for one to maintain his or her job, employees are expected to exhibit corporate entrepreneurship and its associated competencies (Ferreira, 2010; Zahra, 2015).

There are, however, existing gaps in studies on corporate entrepreneurship. For example, Gorgievski and Bakker (2010) found that, though there may be variables such as workaholism and job security which may predict innovativeness and creativity (both components of corporate entrepreneurship), a study that looks at some moderators would give detailed information about the difference among the various samples. Furthermore, it was observed that organizations and samples that have been studied through the lens of corporate entrepreneurship are those that do not rely much on corporate entrepreneurship for their daily activities (Tantau, Chinie & Carlea, 2015). To understand this phenomenon well, it has been seen as an imperative to use it in a context that keeps changing every day. This context can be limited to the information technology organizations where there is heavy reliance on corporate entrepreneurship to keep it running.

The relationship that has been seen to exist between the predictors (organizational commitment, workaholism, and job security) and corporate entrepreneurship has been seen to be simplistic on its own (Qiao & Wang, 2009). For example, it has been agreed that workaholism and commitment are not enough for one to engage in corporate entrepreneurship. It has thus been suggested that the existence of moderating factors may play a large role (Giannini & Scabia, 2014). It is suggested that there could be a particular resilience that allows one to focus on targeted performance in every situation irrespective of risks. One such resilience is what is termed psychological flexibility. In the literature also, not much work has been done to investigate the influence of psychological flexibility on organizational variables though it has been purported to be beneficial in organizations (Atkins & Parker, 2012; Shao & Skarlicki, 2009). Most studies have focused on the use of psychological flexibility in understanding behavior in clinical settings, and thus, suggestions for its study in understanding behavioral effectiveness in the workplace have been proposed (Feinstein et al., 2011; Lewis & Zibarras, 2013). The adoption of psychological flexibility as a moderator is therefore important to understand the driving force of corporate entrepreneurship among information technology employees. The main purpose of this study was therefore to examine how psychological flexibility moderates the relationships between organizational commitment, workaholism, job security, and corporate entrepreneurship among information technology workers in Accra, Ghana.

Method

Research Design

The study used a cross-sectional survey design. This design was used because it entails surveys or other pre-structured means that helps to obtain a common dataset on some pre-selected variables (Sadowski, 2003). Although this design has the potential for common method variance, it was appropriate and therefore selected because the characteristics of an existing phenomenon are described with facts and accurate details are also given. This has also been seen as an effective way of obtaining information to devise hypothesis and propose associations between variables.

Study Setting

The study was conducted within the Greater Accra Metropolis, as the majority of business activities are located in this area. This study site was also selected because the majority of organizations in the service sector, particularly information technology organizations, are largely headquartered in this city with their branches also located in other suburbs in Accra (Oteng-Ababio & Agyemang, 2012).

Participants

The study population, therefore, consisted of employees of information technology firms in the Accra Metropolis. In Africa, specifically Ghana, information technology firms are basically made up of six to 10 employees. This means that they can be typically referred to as small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). However, due to the advancement in technology issues, some information technology firms now have up to 30 employees. This is to cope with the rising consumption levels of information technology among Ghanaians. The sample used for the study consisted of 248 staff. The sample consisted of 78.2% males and 21.8% females. This means majority of the working force in a typical information technology firm are males, thus highlighting the underrepresentativeness of females in information technology firms.

Procedure

The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Humanities (ECH) of the University of Ghana to conduct the study. The information technology firms were selected by purposive sampling. The sampling methods are justified for reasons of practicability, cost-effectiveness, and convenience. After purposive selection of the organizations, the human resource managers of some of these organizations were contacted in person. The objectives of the study were explained to them before they gave their approval to undertake the study. In other companies, the researcher had direct access to the participants who gave their consent. In this case, only participants who were willing and ready to partake in the study were employed. This means that they were conveniently selected. Each participant completed a standardized questionnaire which took about 30 to 40 min to complete.

Measures

Organizational commitment

The Organizational Commitment Scale (Allen & Meyer, 1990; along three dimensions—affective, continuance, and normative) was used to measure organizational commitment. The instrument comprised a 24-item, self-administered questionnaire involving a 5-point Likert-type response, ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Four items (i.e., Items 3, 4, 6, and 13) are scored in the reverse manner and were recoded. The Organizational Commitment Scale has been found to be reliable in various samples in Africa, including Ghana, with acceptable reliability coefficients reported in Ghanaian samples ranging from .70 to .80 (Dotse & Asumeng, 2014). In this study, a Cronbach’s alpha value of .72 was found.

Workaholism

The Dutch Work Addiction Scale (DUWAS; Schaufeli, Shimazu, & Taris, 2009; along two dimensions—working compulsively and working excessively) was used to measure workaholism. The instrument comprised a 10-item, self-administered questionnaire on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). Reliability coefficients that are acceptable have been reported in South African samples with alpha coefficient of .78 (Horn, 2015). A Cronbach’s alpha of .64 was found in this study.

Job security

The Job Insecurity Scale by Borg and Elizur (1992) with nine items and scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) was used to measure job security. This was along two dimensions: job insecurity fear (three items; for example “I would feel stressed if I had to fight for my job”) and job insecurity worry (six items; for example “I look forward with confidence to the introduction of new technologies”). The Job Insecurity scale has been used in various samples and has reported an alpha coefficient of .93 (Staufenbiel & Konig, 2006). In this study, a Cronbach’s alpha value of .68 was found.

Corporate entrepreneurship

The Entrepreneurial Behavior Scale with 12 items measured on a behaviorally anchored rating scale along four dimensions (innovativeness, risk taking, change orientation, and opportunism) was used to measure corporate entrepreneurship. A sample item in this scale included “The poor attendance of your staff at a recent training program organized by the company’s personnel department has been widely criticized and you have been asked by your boss to do something about it. What would you do?” In this study, a Cronbach’s alpha value of .83 was found.

Psychological flexibility

Psychological flexibility was measured using the Work-Related Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (WAAQ) by Bond et al. (2013). It has seven items which were scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never true) to 5 (always true). A sample item was “I can work effectively even when I doubt.” The WAAQ has been used in various American samples and has reported a reliable alpha coefficient of .92 (De La Rosa, Webb-Murphy & Johnston, 2016). In this study, it had a Cronbach’s alpha of .84.

Statistical Analyses

The Statistical Product and Service Solution (SPSS) version 21 with the process macro model 1 for SPSS 2.16.3 by Hayes (2013) was used in the analysis of the data. The Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient (Pearson r) test was used to test the relationship between the independent variables (i.e., organizational commitment, workaholism, psychological flexibility, and job security) and the dependent variable (corporate entrepreneurship). The standard multiple regression was used to examine the best predictors of corporate entrepreneurship. All statistical tests were conducted using a two-tailed examination, and a p value of ≤.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

The correlation results, presented in Table 1, showed that corporate entrepreneurship significantly correlated positively with organizational commitment (r = .48, p < .001), workaholism (r = .58, p < .001), and psychological flexibility (r = .64, p < .001) but negatively associated with job security (r = −.53, p < .001).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics, Internal Consistencies, and Correlations of Variables.

Variables	M (SD)	α	1	2	3	4	5
1. Corporate entrepreneurship	42.65 (5.57)	.83	—	—	—	—	—
2. Organizational commitment	81.93 (12.52)	.72	.48**	—	—	—	—
3. Workaholism	29.26 (4.85)	.64	.58**	.42**	—	—	—
4. Job security	23.03 (10.77)	.68	−.53**	−.11**	−.22**	—	—
5. Psychological flexibility	25.15 (6.07)	.84	.64**	.30**	.44**	−.43**	—

p < .001.

As presented in Table 2, the regression model was statistically significant (F = 111.90, p < .001) and all the three predictors (i.e., organizational commitment, workaholism, and job security) accounted for 57.9% of variance in corporate entrepreneurship (R² = .579). The results further suggest that job security (β = −.42, p < .001), workaholism (β = .38, p <.001), and organizational commitment (β = .28, p < .001) significantly predicted corporate entrepreneurship. These findings suggest that workers in the study who reported higher levels of workaholism, higher levels of organizational commitment, and lower levels of job security were more likely to exhibit corporate entrepreneurship.

Table 2.

Standard Multiple Regression on Predictors of Corporate Entrepreneurship.

Model	B	SE	β
Constant	24.92	1.94	—
Organizational commitment	0.12	0.02	.28**
Workaholism	0.43	0.05	.38**
Job security	−0.22	0.02	−.42**

Note. R² = .579.

p < .001.

The moderating effect of psychological flexibility on the relationship between organisational commitment, workaholism, and job security and corporate entrepreneurship is presneted in Table 3. The interaction between psychological flexibility and organizational commitment added to the prediction of corporate entrepreneurship (β = −.02 p < .005). The results indicate that at a higher level of psychological flexibility, the effect of organizational commitment on corporate entrepreneurship weakens. Psychological flexibility, therefore, moderated the relationship between organizational commitment and corporate entrepreneurship. The interaction between psychological flexibility and workaholism added to the prediction of corporate entrepreneurship (β = −.02, p = .024). The results indicate that at a higher level of psychological flexibility, the effect of workaholism on corporate entrepreneurship is weakened. Psychological flexibility, therefore, moderated the relationship between workaholism and corporate entrepreneurship. The interaction between psychological flexibility and job security did not add to the prediction of corporate entrepreneurship (β = .01, p = .102). Psychological flexibility, therefore, did not moderate the relationship between job security and corporate entrepreneurship.

Table 3.

The Moderating Effect of Psychological Flexibility on the Relationship Between Commitment, Workaholism, and Job Security and Corporate Entrepreneurship.

Model	B	SE	p values
Interaction (Organizational Commitment × Psychological Flexibility)	−0.20	0.05	.005
Interaction (Workaholism × Psychological Flexibility)	−0.09	0.04	.024
Interaction (Job Security × Psychological Flexibility)	0.11	0.06	.102

Discussion

In this study, a positive relationship between organizational commitment and corporate entrepreneurship was found. This confirms previous studies that have also established such relationships among organizational commitment and corporate entrepreneurship (Banuro, 2008; Barba-Sánchez & Atienza-Sahuquillo, 2012; Jha, 2011; Lii & Wong, 2008). The observation in the present study indicates that workers who perceive their organizations to be appreciative of their innovative capabilities tend to be highly committed. With organizational commitment known to be one of the key determinants in attitudes solely responsible for carrying out innovative activities, the finding in the current study is consistent in proving that attitudes and skills and corporate entrepreneurship are positively related. We also observed that a strong significant positive relationship was found between workaholism and corporate entrepreneurship. This means that the psychological aspect of entrepreneurship such as the compulsion to create and bring about new ideas reinforces the addictive behavior of working called workaholism. The observation that the high demands leading to workaholism is associated with corporate entrepreneurship among information technology workers is acceptable especially regarding this unique population used in this research (Hornsby et al., 2002). The high demands on information technology organizations and demands for their consulting services have therefore led to high expectations from the workers in such organizations. The findings of the study may, therefore, be as a result of these conditions thereby leading to corporate entrepreneurship. To prevent the negative consequences of workaholism, firms that specialize in information technology services should begin to adopt emotion regulation strategies and training programs that help to reduce the negative cognitive and behavioral consequences of workaholism and management of time as well as the appropriate use of leisure times.

In our study, we found a negative relationship between job security and corporate entrepreneurship. One possible explanation for the finding regarding this relationship may be that employees in an information technology firm perceived that the likelihood of them losing their job is low because of the rise in the use of technological services. This is evident in some studies (Fairlie, Kapur, & Gates, 2011; Parker, Jimmieson, & Amiot, 2010). As job security is fluctuating in a developing economy like Ghana, these employees know that their services are in high demand and so do not allow their creative potentials to be dependent on job security, hence the negative relationship. The findings of the study supported the assertion made by Ahmed (2016) that organizational commitment does not account for all the variance in corporate entrepreneurship. The findings also supported the finding by Bond and Bunce (2003) that psychological flexibility encompasses the acceptance of negative feelings and thoughts about an event. It also supported the finding by Bond, Flaxman, and Bunce (2008) who suggested that higher levels of psychological flexibility affected job performance positively.

The findings from the current study indicated that psychological flexibility moderated the relationship between workaholism and corporate entrepreneurship. Workaholism has been associated with the need to be worried when work is incomplete (Mäkikangas, Schaufeli, Tolvanen, & Feldt, 2013). However, Hayes, Follette, and Linehan (2011) suggested that if people have adequate levels of psychological flexibility, they tend to worry less about issues which are often positive in the corporate entrepreneurship process, thus supporting findings from the current study. To illustrate the finding in the Ghanaian setting, it can be said that workers who accept negative feelings and emotions keep control over their behavior and have to invest little effort to cope with the demanding nature of corporate entrepreneurship activities in an information technology firm. They may therefore have more resources available to cope with the demands associated with corporate entrepreneurship (Bond & Hayes, 2002; Bond, Hayes, & Barnes-Holmes, 2006). Furthermore, it is observed that greater levels of innovation are needed in the information technology sector, and as the workers know workaholism is necessary to bring about this innovation, they may utilize flexibility to increase corporate entrepreneurship and agility in an organization (Conboy & Fitzgerald, 2004). The study also confirms the assertion by Han and Zhao (2012) that corporate entrepreneurship has a direct relationship with job security. Thus, any emotional state caused due to the relationship between corporate entrepreneurship and job security is not dependent on any moderating factor.

As indicated by previous researchers (e.g., Noone & Hastings, 2011), we found psychological flexibility to be negatively related with emotional exhaustion—an indication that low levels of job security may lead to high job demands due to entrepreneurial activities. The findings may indicate that in the Ghanaian context, workers in information technology firms do not use any personal conviction to maintain their jobs and exhibit innovative ideas. It may be that the relationship that exists between the feelings they have about the security of their jobs may not be influenced by any buffer and thus has no influence on their corporate entrepreneurship.

Our study has implications for interventions and practice. The findings underscore the urgent need for the incorporation of training programs that can prepare employees for the demanding nature in terms of innovative and risk taking aspects of these organizations. This would help employees to manage the unbearable consequences that would have come with such demands. These interventions can also incorporate the education of employers on time management as well as prioritization of events. This is because if employees are given too many duties to finish and do not plan their time accordingly, it limits the innovative entrepreneurial behavior in an organization. The discovery of such positive relationships between organizational commitment and corporate entrepreneurship as well as workaholism and corporate entrepreneurship among Ghanaian employees shows that these relationships are not limited to the Western context. It is therefore important that job analysis needs to be done to understand the nuances in some job descriptions and specifications. Proper interventions related to the creative potentials of information technology employees can thus be designed. Thomas and Mueller (2000) have recognized that organizational culture is one of the most important foundations that competitive advantage is founded on. This therefore shows that if an organizational culture is made up of the encouragement of the use of psychological flexibility and corporate entrepreneurship, there is likely to be high levels of successful ventures. This shows that the management should adopt interventions that are based on the characteristics and attitudes of their employees to foster the corporate entrepreneurial culture among them. One other interesting finding from the study is that employees saw workaholism as a motivating potential to get work done effectively and efficiently. This contradicts the notion that workaholism is hazardous to the creative potentials of employees. This indicates that when organizational psychologists or management are designing interventions targeted at reducing the incidence of counterproductive behaviors, employers may have to pay particular attention to ensuring that the positive aspect of workaholism is encouraged and improved upon. Psychological flexibility has been found to have positive implications for employees in this current study. This shows that job training can be organized for employees to ensure they have adequate levels of psychological flexibility. Organizational commitment was also found to be important in predicting corporate entrepreneurship; therefore, information technology firms can include factors that enhance organizational commitment in the workplace. This can include motivation, inclusion of workers in decision making, and policy implementation. Other factors such as long service awards and joint shareholding can influence the commitment level of workers.

Limitations

The current study presents certain potential limitations. The first limitation had to do with the descriptive and quantitative nature of the study. This is because it has been established that the use of descriptive methods only gives a description of the relationships that exist between variables without explaining them (Opoku, 2012). There were difficulties getting as many organizations as possible to participate. Second, most targeted organizations felt the information being collected from the employees was indicative of their attitudes and working conditions so were uncomfortable granting permission for data to be collected from their staff. Some employees also thought the information would be passed on to their superiors which would reflect their personal convictions in their organizations. This, therefore, made the population a hard to reach population. This therefore means the sample used may not be enough to generalize to a larger population and also the finding may only be generalizable to people in similar organizations. There should therefore be a certain level of caution when generalizing results.

Conclusion

Despite these limitations, the contributions in this study are highly significant and important to the viability, success, and high performance of organizations. This is because the literature provides scientific understanding of organizational and employee factors that can affect the competitive nature of employees as well as their organizations. Another strength the study presents is the diverse organizations that were involved in the study. Organizations ranging from information technology consultants, security-based information technology, and digitized waste management services were all included in the study. This presents a wider perspective of the study area. It is hoped that this study could make the information technology organizations aware of their employees’ or workers’ contribution in terms of their psychological flexibility and corporate entrepreneurship to the organization’s performance.

Footnotes

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Additional informed consent was obtained from all individual participants for whom identifying information is included in this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Kwaku Oppong Asante

Author Biographies

Maame Afua Boatemaa, holds an MPhil in Industrial & Organisational Psychology and currently serves as a graduate assistant in the Department of Psychology, University of Ghana. She has worked on various research topics ranging from safety at the workplace to psychology in agriculture. Her interests also focus on how clinical psychology variables like psychological flexibility are used in work settings.

Kwaku Oppong Asante, PhD is an experienced researcher and a lecturer in Psychology at the University of Ghana. He is also an honorary lecturer in the Discipline of Psychology, University of KwaZulu-Natal, and a Research Fellow in the Department of Psychology, the University of Free State, all in South Africa. His research interests focus on adolescent health and well-being, social and psychological aspects of HIV/AIDS and health promotion. He also has interest in other areas of health psychology and public health. He is an associate editor of the International Journal of Addiction & Mental Health and an Academic Editor of PLOS One.

Collins Agyemang Badu, PhD is a lecturer and a licensed Industrial & Organisational Psychologist at the Department of Psychology, University of Ghana. He consultant for several national and international organizations on psycho-business issues. He is the national vice president of Ghana Psychological Association. He is reasonably published and has taught and supervised graduate students in multiple higher education institutions in Ghana. He is currently a visiting courtesy professor to University of South Florida, (Tampa Campus), USA. He is the coordinator of the University of Ghana Pan-African Doctoral Academy and his research centers on occupational health and safety, humanitarian psychology and organizational behaviour/management.

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The Moderating Role of Psychological Flexibility in the Relationship Between Organizational Commitment,Workaholism,Job Security,and Corporate Entrepreneurship Among Information Technology Workers in Accra,Ghana

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Method

Research Design

Study Setting

Participants

Procedure

Measures

Organizational commitment

Workaholism

Job security

Corporate entrepreneurship

Psychological flexibility

Statistical Analyses

Results

Discussion

Limitations

Conclusion

Footnotes

Ethical Approval

Informed Consent

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

Author Biographies

References