Catalysts but Not Magicians: Role of NGOs in the Tribal Development

Abstract

The territories inhabited by the tribal communities of India often attract a wide variety of external agents and agencies for variety of reasons. One very important segment of such agencies often cites development and transformation of tribal communities as the prime objective. The “official” category is the agency of planned change, and its responsibility is to work in accordance with the profile of the job or institution. Besides this, there is another important category, “social worker,” whose presence is voluntary, at least in theory. The dominant section of the later is popular as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). In recent years, efforts are made to bring together the activities of government and NGOs to maximize the benefit to tribal communities and to speed up the process of social and economic transformation. The idea of government organization and nongovernmental organization (GO-NGO) partnership gained momentum. The results of these partnerships proved positive when compared with the programs implemented by the government organization alone. Several NGOs are successful because they train local youth as resource persons according to the needs of development initiatives. However, it is not necessary that every development activity implemented by them would be successful. In this context, the article examines the role of NGOs in the process of tribal development by analyzing their activities and the results.

Introduction

Voluntary agencies have been playing a key role in the development of society since time immemorial. According to Inamdar (1987), “During ancient and medieval times, voluntarism operated freely and exclusively in the fields of education, medicine, cultural promotion and even acted as succour in crisis like droughts, floods, epidemics and foreign invasions” (p. 422). In the modern era, voluntary agencies are popular as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The concept of a voluntary organization or NGO is multidimensional in the form and operation. Ideally, they adopt democratic and decentralized approach for economic and social development. Vannucci (1989) remarked “NGOs can succinctly encourage real values that come up, satisfying genuine needs and fill gaps in knowledge” (p. 11). However, there is confusion and suspicion among the people about the nature and purpose of voluntary organizations. The NGOs are successful in most of the cases in wiping out such suspicions with participatory approaches. The recruitment of self-motivated and service-oriented people is an asset to these organizations. The aid and finances also play an important role in the functioning of NGOs.

A web portal for NGOs of India, www.ngosindia.com, mentioned in its mission statement “We are committed to social justice, sustainable development and human rights.” There are several types of NGOs depending on their level of orientation. They are charitable orientation, service orientation, participatory orientation, and empowering orientation. Voluntary organizations or NGOs may be classified into different types depending on the nature of activities carried out by these organizations. Sinha (1989) classified voluntary organizations into seven groups based on the approaches followed by those organizations. They are charity, welfare, relief, rehabilitation, services, development of socioeconomic environment, and development of human beings. Based on these approaches, Sinha (1989, p. 16) identified four strategies of the voluntary organizations. They are simple charity, supplementing welfarism of the state; encouraging people’s participation and implementing programs launched by the government for larger benefit of the community of village; involving people in program planning, raising resources, implementing activities and sharing fruits of development; and organizing people, enabling them to demand and undertake planning and implementation of development programs beneficial to them. A strategy based on the abovementioned values increases the reliability of these organizations in the public domain. Chaturvedi (1989) rightly points out that “there is a need for development of curriculum (for voluntary organizations) to fulfil the manpower demands according to the government’s laid down policy” (p. 7). NGOs may play a supportive and complementary role, but they cannot replace the government organization.

The government of India ensured a significant role to NGOs through its plan documents. First 5-year plan document states that the “public co-operation through voluntary service organizations is capable of yielding valuable results in channelling private efforts for the promotion of social welfare” (as cited in Sinha, 1989, p. 19). In the same spirit, the NGOs are playing an important role in the era of modern development, particularly after the 1990s in our country. In a very short time, “GO-NGO partnership” has become the chant of government in all its development initiatives. ¹ Several ministries, departments, and organizations of the central government are participating in the partnership system with NGOs. As it is stated in the website on NGO partnership system, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Ministry of Women & Child Development, Department of Higher Education, Department of School Education and Literacy, National Aids Control Organization, Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology, Central Social Welfare Board, and Department of Youth Affairs are participating in this system. The governments at state level are working with the same spirit to strengthen the partnership system with NGOs. The government of Andhra Pradesh constituted a committee with chief minister as its chairperson to coordinate between NGOs and the government. ² As a result, the participation of NGOs in the process of development attained significance.

Tribal development in India often understood from the perspective of the “other.” The other refers to many entities such as policymakers, politicians, social workers, and researchers. The perception of the “nontribal” development practitioners on the well-being of tribal communities need not coincide with the aspirations of the tribal communities. Lack of necessary involvement of the people from tribal communities in the development planning resulted in their poor participation. The lacunae in the development programs are not properly identified from the viewpoint of the participants. The panchayat raj institutions are crippled with the replication of the authoritarian and stratified caste structure of the Indian society. As a result, attaining the objective of democratic decentralization and even distribution of the fruits of development remain as a myth. The sociopolitical dynamics of a village influence the implementation of the programs. In such scenario, the NGOs pledge to take the development programs to the doorsteps of needy people. Kilby (2011) observes

Indian NGOs have been involved in development work of one sort or another for over hundred years and have been important in Indian government programmes, as well as being partners for international NGO (INGO) donors since the nation’s independence in 1947. (p. 1).

But do they act as magicians to solve all the problems of vulnerable communities?

The role of NGOs in the welfare of the tribal communities of India is very significant. They supplement the efforts of the government. They address the needs and the aspirations of the people. They are innovative and flexible. They operate with little investments but ensure greater participation of the community. They recruit local youth and train them to achieve the objectives of the organization. They build confidence in the people. Vannucci (1989) opines “the existence of powerful NGOs creates a double security system whereby governments may express their needs and requirements” (p. 13). The knowledge and commitment of NGOs help in making the implementation process more transparent and accountable. The same is explored in the context of Chenchus, a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states of India.

Chenchus—A Brief Background

The first description of the Chenchus is found in the Ferishta’s History of Dekkan (Scott, 1794), which describes the people of Nallamalai as on 1694. But it did not mention the name Chenchu. Buchanan (1807) mentioned a tribe called Chensu Carir or Cat’ Chensu or Cad’ Eriliguru or Chensu who lives in the jungles of Madras. According to him,

they live in the little huts . . . have a small piece of blanket, or cotton cloth, to cover their nakedness. . . . The language of Chensu is a dialect of Tamul, with occasionally a few Karnata or Telinga words intermixed. . . . Their original country, they say, Animalya forest below the Ghats, which is confirmed by their dialect. (Buchanan, 1807, p. 106)

Kurnool Manual (Chetty 1886) is the first account to mention the name Chenchu. It describes “A wild tribe called Chenchus inhabit the Nallamalai Hills” (Chetty, 1886, p. 158). In the Census Report of 1891, Chenchu was mentioned as a subdivision of Yanadis. Thurston and Rangachari (1909) describe “The Chenchus or Chentsus are a Telugu-speaking Jungle tribe inhabiting the hills of the Kurnool and Nellore districts” (p. 26). Siraj-ul-Hassan (1920) in a brief note on the Chenchus of Hyderabad describe “Chanchu, Chanchukulam, Chanchalwad—a non-Aryan tribe dwelling in the hilly tracts which run parallel to the Kistna river and form the southern boundary of the Hyderabad Dominions” (p. 149). Hodson (1922) observed “. . . the Chenchus who lived in caves; even now, here and there, are those who use caves as places of temporary habitation” (p. 31). Aiyappan (1948) describes them as “semi-wild, lazy, drinking set of brigands” (p. 150). The Chenchus were classified into four exogamous groups. They are Telugu Chenchus, Adavi Chenchus, Krishna Chenchus, and Bonta Chenchus (Siraj-ul-Hassan, 1920, p. 149). Haimendorf (1943) emphasized on the same typology but opined that there is no authentic relationship exists between the Chenchus of Nallamalai and other types of Chenchu. Bhowmick (1992) and Gangadhar (1996) classified Chenchu into Konda Chenchu, Ura Chenchu, Yanadi Chenchu, Bonta or Botua Chenchu, Chenchu Dasaries, Koya Chenchu, and Krishna Chenchu.

At present Chenchu is not completely a hunting-gathering or nomadic community but a “pre-agricultural” or “hunting-gathering” community which is in transition. They predominantly inhabit in the Nallamalai hills and the forest of Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, and Rangareddy districts of Telangana and Kurnool, Prakasam, and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh. Haimendorf (1943) opines that the Chenchus “are not only racially but also culturally survivals of most ancient India” (p. 4). They are identified as a PVTG in 1975. A small portion of the community practice seminomadic life and depends on hunting and food gathering for the subsistence. The Chenchus from peripheral region of Nallamalai forest into wage labor. Very few Chenchus are practicing cultivation. The government and nongovernment agencies have to address the diverse needs and aspirations of the Chenchus.

Tribal development is widely discussed not only by the scholars of various disciplines but also by the social activists, administrators, and politicians. The first prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru made special emphasis on the development of tribal communities. His “five principles” for tribal development (Elwin, 1959) guided the policy in the formative years after independence. But the tribal development administration did not follow the vision of Shri—Nehru in a true sense. Wide variety of programs and policies were devised for the development of tribals without involving the stakeholders. The top-down approach did not yield results and the bottom-up approach did not adapt in real sense. Therefore, a desired change in the quality of life of the tribal communities was not achieved. At this juncture, it is apt to understand not only the development programs but also the causes and consequences of their failure or success in the tribal areas. An anthropological understanding of the worldview of the tribal communities and their aspirations is useful to devise appropriate programs.

Development Initiatives

The Nallamalai, the habitat of the Chenchus, is divided by the river Krishna. One part was under the control of Nizam and the other was under the control of the British administration. These administrations influenced the social, cultural, and economic life of the Chenchus in different ways. As a result, a cultural divide has been developed in the course of time. The British, Nizam, and Indian administrations have implemented several programs for the well-being of the Chenchus. Sastry (1993) mentioned that “The entire areas of 6100 acres allotted by British in 1932 as enclosures were surveyed and forest boundaries were fixed by joint teams of Revenue and Forest department” (p. 93). Similar efforts were made by the Nizam government by establishing a Chenchu reserve in 1942. Chenchus were allowed to clear the forest for cultivation and were provided with house sites and grazing lands. A Chenchu Reserve was established under the guidance of Haimendorf (1943, p. 376). After independence, “Stereo-typed programmes have been introduced without taking into consideration the felt needs of the people” (Pratap, 1972, p. 232). But Subbarama Raju, Sugunakumari, and Sudhakar (2006) observe,

The Chenchus’ dependency on forest produce for their mainstay has been rapidly replaced by income earning activities leading to sedentary life. Because of their sedentary life, the cultural transformation has also been noticed mainly in aspects of family welfare, size and type of family, rituals like marriage, festivals, food habits and dressing patterns. (p. 10)

The impact of cultural transformation on quality of life remained insignificant.

There are some alarming problems that concern the state and nonstate actors. The population of Chenchus is not increasing on the lines of other communities. Chatterjee (2006) observes “Over a period of 100 years (1881 to 1981) the increase of Chenchus population was four-fold with an annual growth rate of 1.6 per cent against national annual growth rate of more than 2 per cent” (p. 504). Malnutrition, lack of safe drinking water, inaccessibility to health care facilities, lack of awareness, and education are important in this regard. The hiatus between policy makers and stakeholders is another important reason for the failure of many development programs. Subramanyam (2006) discussed several lapses in the development of PVTGs. He opines, “There are varied reasons, such as defective planning, failure of bureaucracy, insufficient funds, weakness at implementation level, tribal peoples’ innocence and ignorance, and widespread corruption” (Subramanyam, 2006, p. 596). In some cases, the policies and programs have a negative impact. In such cases, NGOs are playing a vital role with their bottom-up approach. The volunteers of these organizations live among people and understand the real needs of the people. They minimize the wastage in the implementation. The participatory approaches and the volunteers drawn from the community are the assets of these organizations.

Role of NGOs

There are many NGOs working for the well-being of Chenchus. They create awareness about persistent problems and act as agents of change. Red Cross Society, Department for International Development (DFID), Sakthi, Conservation of Nature Through Rural Awakening (CONARE), Centre for People’s Forestry (CPF), Nice Foundation, Nandi Foundation, Nallamalai Foundation, Andhra Pradesh Right to Eyesight Society (APRESS), L V Prasad Eye Institute (LVPEI), Andhra Pradesh Child Right Society (APCRS), Child Care Organization, Vanavasi Kalyani Parishad, Pragati Rural Education and Development Organization, Sangha Mitra Seva Samithi and Seva Bharati, CONARE, and Centre for Human Resource Development (CHRD) are few organizations doing significant work for the development of Chenchus. Few of these NGOs are working independently and others are engaged in collaborative work with another NGO or government organization. The work of the NGOs for the development of Chenchu community is discussed under the following components: educational development, health care, livelihood enhancement, vocational training and women empowerment, agricultural development, economic development, development and religious promotion, environmental protection, awareness programs on rights and privileges, and legal support.

Education

Education is very important for the development of any community. It is very essential for the development of tribal communities too. The efforts were made by the Government of Madras and the Government of Hyderabad in this direction before the independence. A school was established in 1904-1905 by the then British government to impart formal education for the Chenchus (Thurston, 1909). An educational superintendent was appointed during the year 1917. Another school was established by the forest department in the year 1918 in Bairluty Gudem (a Chenchu hamlet) of Kurnool district (Mohanty, 2004). After independence, many schools were established in the Chenchu territory. The year 1972 is a landmark in this regard. A separate Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) was established for the administration of the Chenchus. Many schools were established, but a majority are primary or upper primary schools. There is a gradual increase in the number of school going children in the recent years. The ITDA has established different types of schools. But there is no significant growth in the literacy rate despite having more than a hundred years of history for the institutional establishment of education. According to Census 2011, the total literacy rate is 40.6% out of which 47.3% male and 34.0% female are literates (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2013).

The NGOs are playing an important role in motivating the Chenchus to send their children to the schools. Vanavasi Kalyan Parishad (VKP) is working for the educational upliftment of the Chenchus. In fact, its prime motive is cultural restoration and preventing the religious conversions or promoting Hinduism among the Chenchus. But it is managing a hostel for the Chenchus in Achampet of Mahabubnagar district, Telangana. The hostel accommodates 150 students. It is serving as a home for the children from third class to Intermediate. The organization provides food and shelter at free of cost. Infrastructure Leasing & Financial Services Limited (IL&FS) is working for the promotion of better educational standards in schools under the name Education and Technology Services (ETS). ETS has joined hands with the government to promote quality education in rural areas. This organization has adopted an Ashram School at Appaipally of Mahabubnagar district. The prime beneficiaries of this program are the students from Chenchu community. This organization conducts two programs known as Learning Enhancement Programme (LEP) and Quality Improvement Programme (QIP). As part of the program, the NGO has supplied toolkits and illustrative learning material for the school. The learning materials are very innovative and easy to learn, but they are in English. The teachers are not very receptive to new materials because of the problem of the medium of language. The organization did not train the teachers. The teachers discarded the learning materials without making any effort to use them in the teaching-learning process. As a result, an innovative initiative ended in failure.

Health Programs

The Chenchus in the interior forest depends on the traditional medical system. But the Chenchus in the plain areas use the medical facilities of the government. The efforts made by the government to provide medical facilities in the vicinity of the Chenchus. There are 43 primary health centers established in Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, and Rangareddy districts of Telangana and Prakasam, Guntur, and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh. ITDA established the system of community health volunteers, at least one in every Chenchu hamlet. Their duty is to report the cases to a nearest health center and provide basic medication or first aid to the ill person. They should continuously engage in awareness creation with the help of ITDA on health and hygiene. These efforts have been escalated with the participation of NGOs in the health development of the Chenchus.

Red Cross Society, Nice Foundation, LVPEI, and DFID in Collaboration with Andhra Pradesh Right to Eye Sight Society (APRESS) are playing a vital role by offering better health care services to the Chenchus. All these organizations periodically organize the health camps in the Chenchu hamlets. Red Cross society under its rural health program conducts health camps very frequently. The mobile dispensary of Indian Red Cross Society with a doctor and three paramedical staff visits the Chenchu hamlets at least once in a month. They conduct health checkups and supply medicines to the Chenchus at free of cost. The organization maintains the health cards of the Chenchu students of Ashram schools. The Red Cross Society and Nice foundation organize medical camps even in the hamlets in the core areas of the forest. Seva Bharati organization provides health services for the Chenchus of Kurnool district with its mobile dispensaries. DFID and APRES conduct cataract operations and lend medical help pertaining to eye care in collaboration with ITDA. They have done 4,378 cataract operations in the ITDA administered region for the Chenchus as well as for the poor people from other communities. The medical help rendered by these organizations is very significant. LVPEI organizes eye care health camps in the schools. They offer free treatment for the minor eye problems of the children and supply spectacles. They offer treatment for the major illness at a 50% subsidy at their institute in Hyderabad, Telangana.

Chenchu Livelihood Enhancement (CHELE) Project

The government organizations ITDA, Girijan Co-operative Corporation (GCC), and Andhra Pradesh Forest Department; the NGOs CPF, CONARE, and CHRD organizations have jointly implemented this project. CONARE and CHRD work at grassroots level. They have few Chenchus in the staff. The project aimed to train the Chenchu men in the sustainable and safe collection of wild honey and the Chenchu women in the sustainable collection of non-timber forest products such as Adda leaf, amla, tamarind, and soap nut. As part of the project, 101 Chenchu women were trained in value addition of the tamarind, 271 women in the value addition of amla, and 102 women in leaf-plate making. The Chenchus were also trained as resource persons to bridge the gap between the collaborative organization and the community. This project was an attempt to bridge the gap between the programs of the government and the people and to realize the full potential of both with the cooperation of NGOs. Two support centers were established under this project at Achempet of Mahabubnagar district and Dornala of Prakasam district to provide training, resource material, and toolkits to the beneficiaries. The project was implemented in 92 Chenchu villages covering 65 core and 27 buffer villages of the forest.

Sustainable and Safe Collection of Honey

Honey collection training program was conducted as part of this project to enhance the livelihood earning capabilities of the Chenchus. The program is named as “Livelihood Enhancement through sustainable and safe practices of Rock bee honey harvesting through GO-NGO collaboration.” Honey collection is one of the most important livelihoods of the Chenchus. It is a potential source of large-scale employment. The program aimed to train the Chenchus in safe and scientific methods of honey collection. It was estimated to have a twofold increase in the collection if the new methods put into practice. The program was conducted in 17 Chenchu clusters of Mahabubnagar, Guntur, Kurnool, and Prakasam districts. Initially, seven Chenchu men were trained for 20 days as Master Trainers at the beginning of the project in 2006-2007. According to the Impact Assessment Report of CHELE project (Narasimha Reddy, 2010), 919 honey harvesters from Mahabubnagar, Guntur, Kurnool, and Prakasam districts were trained between 2006 and 2009. In addition to this, 50 Chenchu honey harvesters were trained by the CPF with the fund assistance from GCC and Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED). They have issued identity cards to all the Chenchu honey harvesters. The kits were also supplied at free of cost. The Chenchu men were trained to collect honey without killing the bees. This method is less risky than the traditional methods. The stipend was given to the participants during the training. The duration of the training was for 10 to 15 days. It was successful in terms of the participation of the Chenchus. But very few Chenchus managed to keep the kits usable and follow the new methods. Many others continue to collect honey using traditional methods even after the training program. Lack of follow-up and damages to tool kits are major problems. Efforts were made to form the honey cooperatives. But they are not successful.

Value Addition Training

This program is also part of CHELE project. Training on value addition to amla, soap nut, and tamarind is part of this program. This was a failure due to lack of adequate training and awareness. The resource persons conducted the training session for few hours in each village. They failed to convince the Chenchus in such a short time. They impart neither knowledge nor awareness on best practices. It was merely a ritual. The Chenchus are following the traditional methods even after the training program. Not a single case of practicing new method is observed. The authoritative resource persons failed to make an impact on the trainees. One resource person says “this programme is not going to be successful among the Chenchus because they never listen to something useful.” Such preoccupied notion is a major obstacle for the success of the program.

Tailoring Training

The APCRS in collaboration with ITDA organizes this program. The program was implemented in a few villages of Mahabubnagar district of Telangana. One training center is in Appaipally village of the same district. There were 30 trainees in this center. Each trainee gets 30 rupees per day as the stipend. The training is for 3 months. The NGO gives sewing machines to trainees after the successful completion of the training. It is partially successful. Not all the women participated regularly due to the lack of a daily payment of stipend. The stipend was given at the end of training. Some trainees were not willing to lose 50 rupees of daily wage because of training. They register for the program only to get a sewing machine. The program coordinator is not a Chenchu. He was concerned with the continuity of the program than its impact. He assumes that giving a regular wage may lead to the exit of trainees at any point of time. If not, they regularly attend the training program at least for the stipend. But this was proved wrong. Most of the trainees skip from regular training. They attend only when the coordinator visits the training center. Although the coordinator aware of it, he ignores because the fund would be sanctioned by the ITDA only if the training is conducted for a specified number of participants. In Appaipally village, only four women were identified as potential tailors after 2½ months of training.

Other Programs

Agriculture promotion initiatives of the government were not very successful. The mismatch between agricultural activities and the cultural aspects is the crucial aspect. The NGOs are also not very interested in these activities due to lack of acceptance by the Chenchus. Very few NGOs are ventured into the activities related to agriculture. Nandi foundation organizes training programs and distributes seeds to the Chenchus either on subsidy or at free of cost depending on the affordability of the beneficiaries. Nallamalai foundation organizes awareness programs to inculcate the interest in cultivation. However, its main motive is not agricultural development but biodiversity conservation in Nallamalai forest with the help of the Chenchus.

Sakthi NGO organized awareness campaign on the rights of Chenchus over water bodies and other resources in the forest. Nallamalai Foundation lends the legal support to the Chenchus of Mahabubnagar and Kurnool districts to secure the rights over the water bodies in the forest. They have educated people on the Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, and Forest Rights Act, 2006. They have played an active advocacy role and took the problems of Chenchus to the government authorities for necessary action. They have initiated fishing cooperatives. But lack of follow-up led to the failure of these cooperatives.

The oral literature of the Chenchus is gradually disappearing in the wake of modernization, shift of the habitats, and livelihoods. The folk songs and the tales are gradually disappearing and the younger generation is not aware of them. In this context, Nallamalai foundation encouraged two teachers from Chenchu community to collect the folk songs and the compilation was published as a book. The book titled Giriginja Girimallelu applauded not only by the educated Chenchus but also by the contemporary writers in Telugu literature.

Conclusion

NGOs with profound knowledge about the community adopt a culturally sensitive approach to bring the desired change. Such approach builds a trustworthy relationship with the people. This is fundamental to educate the people on the expected outcomes of an intervention. The volunteers of NGOs live with the prospective beneficiaries and interact with them in formal and informal situations. This makes them reliable and helps to execute the programs successfully. However, all the NGOs are not successful. A major drawback of such NGOs is found in the execution of the programs. In the collaborative projects, it was found that the targets of the government organization forces grassroots organizations to adopt short-term methods with no considerable follow-up activities. But the acceptance to any program by the tribal communities takes a longer time. The successful programs are also facing challenges in sustaining their results due to lack of follow-up. The inconsistency in funding and lack of trained and committed staff are other constraints. Some cases also suggest that there is widespread suspicion on the activities of few NGOs. Either the people or the statutory mechanisms suspect them. Such mistrust of any stakeholder may lead to the defeat of the purpose of an organization. Although it is difficult in some cases to convince all the stakeholders, it is the responsibility of the NGOs to be transparent and to convince people on their activities. They should also act as a bridge between the government organization and the people by playing an active advocacy role. This would be helpful not only for the people but also to the NGO for the successful implementation of the programs. At present, numerous NGOs are operating in the tribal areas of the country without having connections among them. They often invest scarce resources very sparsely on similar activities. It would give better results if they collaborate based on the common interests. It needs a national and international network of NGOs. An agency to streamline the activities of NGOs will be very productive. But, such agency should not kill the autonomy of any NGO. Despite the loopholes, the NGOs are undoubtedly acting as a safety net and playing a vital role in the development of tribal communities. They do not have magical powers to solve all the problems, but they can effectively work as catalysts in the development process.