Never Mess With the “Memers”: How Meme Creators Are Redefining Contemporary Politics

Abstract

In the ever-evolving landscape of online communication, memes have emerged as potent tools for influencing public opinion. This qualitative study explores the motivations, intentions, and strategic approaches of six meme creators through semi-structured in-depth interviews. It analyses how meme creators perceive and recognize their evolving roles as political actors, challenging traditional communication paradigms, resonating with audiences, driving conversations, and democratizing political engagement. The results reveal meme creators’ nuanced understanding of their content’s educational potential and ability to sway and influence perceptions. Meme creators view themselves as agents of change and perceive their role as crucial in the landscape of contemporary political communication, where they can shape public discourse and influence collective attitudes. They strategically frame political messages and set agendas, viewing their work as a continuation of political satire’s rich tradition. This study highlights their awareness of the ethical complexities involved and analyses how these meme creators turned into modern political actors and grapple with concerns around the monetization of memes and the spread of misinformation. Overall, this research offers a rare glimpse into the world of meme creators as it sheds light on their innovative strategies, their role in democratizing media, and their ability to transform the way we engage with politics. It underscores the transformative potential of memes and highlights that the meme creators’ work is not just about humor, but about making a significant impact on political engagement and public discourse.

Introduction

The rapid evolution of internet culture and the influence of social media networks have given birth to a novel form of political expression: political memes. These humorous, visually engaging, and often satirical digital artifacts have emerged as a potent vehicle for political expression, satire, and collective meaning-making (Shifman, 2019). While the influence of memes in shaping political discourse is undeniable, there remain conspicuous gaps in the academic understanding of the motivations, strategies, and self-perceptions of the individuals creating them. Operating outside traditional media institutions and channels, meme creators have gained significant attention for their ability to influence public opinion, contribute to framing political issues, and encourage participatory engagement (Boulianne et al., 2020; Milner, 2013; Moreno-Almeida, 2021). However, they remain relatively enigmatic figures, and their role as emerging political actors requires further investigation.

This article aims to address this critical research gap by exploring meme creators’ perspectives on their multifaceted role in contemporary political communication. Specifically, it examines how these digital content producers perceive their ability to shape public discourse, their strategies for disseminating political messages, their perceived collective influence as agenda-setters, and the ethical considerations they navigate. Drawing upon in-depth, semi-structured interviews with six prominent Romanian meme creators, this study offers invaluable insights into the motivations, creative processes, and underpinnings that drive their meme-based political communication efforts. Hence, this article presents an in-depth analysis of meme creators’ perspectives and strategies, aiming to answer the overarching research question: How do meme creators perceive their role in disseminating political messages and shaping public discourse?

Addressing this question is essential for understanding the implications of this emerging phenomenon of user-generated political communication, where meme creators strategically create and disseminate content to reach specific audiences, contributing to the collective construction of socio-political narratives through strategic framing and agenda-setting (Entman, 1993; Johann et al., 2023; Coleman et al., 2009). Their bottom-up approach to content creation aligns with the democratization of media production and the participatory culture of the internet (Jenkins, 2009). However, this emergence of grassroots political expression is not without complexities, as meme creators navigate issues of ownership, control, and the co-option of their efforts by commercial or propagandistic interests (Dimitrov et al., 2021; Knobel & Lankshear, 2007; Wiggins & Bowers, 2015).

By unraveling the relationship between meme creators and politics, this article contributes to the growing field of digital politics and advances our understanding of how user-generated content and participatory culture reshape traditional notions of political participation and engagement. It sheds light on the evolving landscape of political communication in the digital age, where memes serve as catalysts for critical engagement with socio-political topics, transcending mere entertainment (Milner, 2018). The findings offer insights into how meme creators perceive their influential role, their approaches to content creation and dissemination, their navigations of ethical concerns, and their views of this novel form of political expression. Thus, the article provides an invaluable contribution to the interdisciplinary narratives around digital politics, participatory democracy, and the evolving intersections of technology, media, and civic engagement in an increasingly networked world.

Meme Politics: Humor, Engagement, Narratives, and Commodification

The rise of the internet and social media has reshaped the landscape of political communication and participation (Dimitrova et al., 2014; Theocharis et al., 2023). These digital platforms have removed physical boundaries, enabling wider participation and interaction in political discourse (Effing et al., 2011; Ruess et al., 2023). User-generated content, such as internet memes, has emerged as potent vehicles for political commentary, satire, and collective action (Milner, 2013; Miltner, 2018; Ross & Rivers, 2017a; Shifman, 2013). The participatory nature of memes has disrupted traditional gatekeeping mechanisms, enabling a more diverse range of voices to influence media agendas and challenge the framing power of political elites and mainstream media outlets (Bebić & Volarevic, 2018; Burroughs, 2020; McLoughlin & Southern, 2021). Hence, memes have facilitated grassroots political participation, enabling people who were previously underrepresented or disenfranchised by traditional mass media to amplify their voices and engage in political activities without institutional gatekeeping (Hristova, 2014; Kirmani, 2023; Mina, 2019; Moreno-Almeida, 2021). This has been researched by academics such as Gerbaudo (2015) and Milner (2013) who focused on the concept of “participatory memetic discourse,” which empowers individuals to engage in political conversations and shape public discourse through the creation and sharing of memes.

The participatory nature of meme culture is facilitated by the networked structure of online communities, which enables the formation of “networked publics” (Boyd, 2010). These networked publics allow for the rapid dissemination and remixing of content, fostering a collaborative and decentralized form of cultural production (Jenkins, 2006; Milner, 2018). Political online activities take place in highly visible and receptive contexts of social media platforms, believed to influence others’ participatory decision-making (Hristova, 2014; Johann, 2022; Le Clue, 2024; Valenzuela et al., 2012). Memes contribute to framing political issues and shaping public discourse through agenda-setting and narrative construction (Kulkarni, 2017; Nekmat & Ismail, 2019; Ross & Rivers, 2019; Wiggins, 2019). Memes amplify or downplay certain issues and events (Mina, 2019; Shifman, 2013). By highlighting particular political issues, memes can influence the public agenda and shape the perceived importance and salience of those issues (Chmel et al., 2024; Huntington, 2020). Memes often employ satire, parody, and humor as potent tools for political commentary, criticism, and challenging authority figures and institutions, drawing heavily from the tradition of political cartoons, political satire, and parody (Ali & Mohammed, 2022; Chen, 2018; Maronikolakis et al., 2020; Navasky, 2013; Piata, 2016; Taecharungroj & Nueangjamnong, 2015). From a psychological perspective, memes can be understood as a continuation of political infotainment and soft news, allowing wider participation through online communities (Leiser, 2022; Moreno-Almeida, 2021; Zhang & Pinto, 2021; Zhu & Fu, 2022).

Research on political comedy suggests that viewers who approach such content with a desire for deeper meaning process information more thoroughly and are more receptive to media effects (Bartsch & Schneider, 2014; Feldman, 2013; Jeong et al., 2023; LaMarre & Grill, 2019). Online communities of bloggers and micro-bloggers have emerged as new political actors, collectively holding institutions accountable (Harff & Schmuck, 2023; Naderer, 2023; Riedl et al., 2021; Sormanen & Dutton, 2015). Users engage with social media and user-generated content for various social functions, such as self-promotion, self-disclosure, self-esteem, social support, and interaction (Gerbaudo et al., 2019; Schaedel & Clement, 2010; van Dijck, 2009). Information-seeking and sharing are personalized, and participatory activities are driven by both perceived information quality and the social utility of sharing (Bobkowski, 2015; Östman, 2012; Zhuang et al., 2023).

However, the origins and motivations for creating memes are not always political. Memes also emerge as an impulse for appropriating visual content that happens to be political or where the political offers a space for creative expression (Dynel, 2024; Murru & Vicari, 2021; Seiffert-Brockmann et al., 2018). Yet, memes are sometimes generated with a direct political intent that deploys humor to promote a certain message, as seen in the “meme war” against the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) by the hacker collective Anonymous (McCrow-Young & Mortensen, 2021). Memes may foster the formation of shared collective identities or cohesive groups through individuals taking part in the playful activity of producing and sharing them online (Katz & Shifman, 2017). Users must acquire the shared knowledge of how memes are meant to be appropriated and reappropriated, reflecting the “relational rules” applied to meme play (Nissenbaum & Shifman, 2017; Wang et al., 2024). Nevertheless, alongside these supposed benefits, the internet has raised concerns about the dissemination of extremist ideologies, erosion of communication norms, fragmentation of audiences, polarization effects, and the commercialization of online attention (Bryson, 2019; Conway, 2016; Diefenbach & Ullrich, 2019; Hooghe & Oser, 2015; Odag et al., 2019; Simpson, 2004; Ferguson, 2021). This commercialization gave rise to the “meme economy” involving their creation, dissemination, and monetization by individuals, brands, and media companies seeking to capitalize on their viral potential and cultural resonance (Chateau, 2021; Literat & Van Den Berg, 2019). Hence, it raises ethical questions about the co-option of grassroots cultural expression for commercial gain and the potential dilution or appropriation of their subversive and satirical power in ways that may contradict their original intent (Adler & Fromer, 2022; Nissenbaum & Shifman, 2017; Wiggins, 2019).

Navigating the Memesphere: Knowledge, Accountability, and Misinformation

While memes are often characterized by their humorous and entertaining nature, they can serve educational and informational functions, contributing to the broader phenomenon of “infotainment” (Baym, 2008; Elmously, 2023; Savolainen, 2022). The ability of memes to convey information and educate audiences is facilitated by their remixable and shareable nature. Combining visual elements, humor, and cultural references, memes can present complex topics in an accessible and engaging format, potentially reaching audiences that may not consume traditional news or educational content (Dongqiang et al., 2020; Laineste & Voolaid, 2016). This can be observed through various studies that have explored how memes have been used to raise awareness about political movements, social issues, and current events (Johann et al., 2023; Kulkarni, 2017; Miltner, 2018); the potential of memes to facilitate political learning and civic engagement among youth (Jakubowski, 2021; Tandon et al., 2022); and the use of memes in science communication, examining their effectiveness in conveying complex information to diverse audiences (Chagas, 2023; Li, 2022; Wells, 2018). These studies suggest that the humorous and relatable nature of memes can make political and scientific information more accessible and engaging for audiences that might otherwise be disengaged from traditional sources.

As previously mentioned, in this participatory and personalized online media sphere, users engage with information, news, and politics in unconventional ways, satisfying various needs such as information-seeking, entertainment, social utility, and relaxation (Mortensen & Neumayer, 2021; Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000; Ross & Rivers, 2017b). Moreover, the creative process of meme creation can itself stimulate critical thinking and intellectual engagement. As users remix and recontextualize existing media artifacts, they are required to critically analyze and interpret the original content, as well as consider the implications and potential impacts of their remixed versions (Wells, 2018). This process can foster media literacy, visual literacy, and a deeper understanding of the cultural and political contexts in which memes operate. Memes can be perceived as a form of digital storytelling that evolves in real time, acting as both a reflection of and a response to the social, cultural, and political landscapes they inhabit. Hence, memes viewed as a genre of internet folklore represent a modern evolution of traditional cultural symbols, reflecting the values, humor, and concerns of online communities (Pimple, 1996). Just as folklore has historically conveyed the beliefs and practices of societies, memes serve as contemporary digital artifacts that encapsulate collective sentiments within participatory culture, continuously adapting as it is shared, remixed, and reinterpreted by diverse users (Shifman, 2013; Wiggins & Bowers, 2015). The folkloric nature of memes lies in their dual characteristics of conservatism and dynamism—concepts central to the understanding of traditional folklore, where adherence to established codes coexists with the demand for innovation and creativity (De Seta, 2020; Nissenbaum & Shifman, 2017; Toelken, 1996). As such, memes act as meaning-making tools that allow communities to engage with and comment on media narratives and societal issues, preserving cultural memory in the process, mirroring the storytelling function of traditional folklore, where each iteration of a meme or a folk tale is shaped by the context and concerns of the community that produces it (Gal et al., 2016; Knobel & Lankshear, 2007).

However, the rapid dissemination and remixing of content in the “memesphere” raises ethical considerations around issues such as intellectual property, privacy, and harm (Adler & Fromer, 2022; Lantagne, 2017; Shifman, 2019). Digital ethics frameworks, such as those proposed by Floridi (2019) and Wachter (2018), emphasize the need for responsible and accountable creation and dissemination of digital content, balancing freedom of expression with ethical considerations. Miltner (2014) explores the concept of “meme oblivion,” referring to the loss of context and attribution when memes are shared and remixed across platforms and communities. This phenomenon raises questions about consent, ownership, and preserving the original intent and meaning in the “memesphere.” Furthermore, the extent to which memes serve educational and informational functions is debated within the literature. Some scholars argue that the level of policy information and political knowledge conveyed through memes tends to be low (McLoughlin & Southern, 2021). In addition, concerns have been raised about the potential for memes to misconstrue complex concepts or perpetuate stereotypes and misinformation (Dupuis & Williams, 2019; Harlow et al., 2020). It is important to note that the educational and informational value of memes is closely tied to the motivations and intentions of their creators. While some meme creators may intentionally aim to raise awareness or educate their audiences, others may prioritize entertainment, self-expression, or other motivations (Halversen & Weeks, 2023; Leiser, 2019).

Existing research has primarily identified non-informative motives for circulating political memes, such as community building, persuasion, self-expression, and entertainment (Leiser, 2022; McKelvey et al., 2023; Moody-Ramirez & Church, 2019; Zhang & Gearhart, 2022). Ross and Rivers (2017a) find that meme creators convey their ideological stance through memes in the hopes of influencing others and bringing about desired political results. They conclude that the low-barrier access to meme creation allows virtually all citizens to engage with politics. However, some studies suggest that meme creators may be politically knowledgeable actors seeking to inform others about politics (Brubaker et al., 2018; Chmel et al., 2024; Galipeau, 2023; Wong & Holyoak, 2021). Creating memes is a creative and intellectual endeavor that stimulates critical thinking (Wells, 2018), suggesting those who create political memes may be thinking critically about political issues and indicating a knowledge flow from meme creators to audiences. Political memes have been found to influence political attitudes and behavior, similar to other forms of political entertainment (de Saint Laurent et al., 2021; Huntington, 2017; Zhang & Gearhart, 2022). Hence, individuals’ need for humor, both internal and external, may predict their use and creation of political memes (Taecharungroj & Nueangjamnong, 2015; Wagner & Schwarzenegger, 2020). This suggests that content producers may have a vested interest in the social or political issues addressed in a meme, while viewers and sharers may engage with memes primarily for entertainment purposes. While some research argues that the humor and simplicity of memes restrict their ability to stimulate meaningful discourse (Denisova, 2019), others propose that memes use playfulness to connect the humorous to the political, allowing users to disrupt and challenge political thinking (Mortensen & Neumayer, 2021). Regardless of the utility of meme humor in promoting discourse, there is a consensus that memes are often used to humorously criticize political leaders (Moody-Ramirez & Church, 2019; Nørgaard Kristensen & Mortensen, 2021; Paz et al., 2021).

The rapid spread of memes and their ability to resonate with online communities make them a potential vector for the dissemination of misinformation, both unintentional and deliberate through disinformation campaigns (Basch et al., 2021; Crovitz & Moran, 2020; Dupuis & Williams, 2019; McCrow-Young & Mortensen, 2021). The use of humor and satire in memes can also obscure the distinction between factual information and parody or exaggeration (Mortensen & Neumayer, 2021). The blurring of boundaries between entertainment, satire, and factual information contributes to the spread of “fake news” (Peters & Allan, 2022; Rodríguez-Ferrándiz et al., 2023; Yeo, 2022). Furthermore, the anonymity afforded by online platforms can contribute to a lack of accountability in meme creation and dissemination (Marchant, 2019; Vickery, 2014), enabling the spread of harmful or unethical content without consequence. Content moderation on social media platforms plays a crucial role in managing the flow of memes and addressing potential harms or ethical violations (Gillespie, 2018; Procházka, 2019; Young, 2022). However, developing transparent and accountable moderation frameworks that balance freedom of expression with ethical considerations is an ongoing challenge (Kien, 2013; Nieubuurt, 2021). Nissenbaum and Shifman (2017) explore the tension between anonymity and accountability in meme culture, highlighting the need for nuanced approaches that address these complexities. Developing digital literacy skills and promoting critical thinking are crucial for navigating the “memesphere” and distinguishing legitimate information from misinformation (Bowyer & Kahne, 2019; Chagas, 2023; Wells, 2018).

Overall, memes represent a complex intersection of political participation, entertainment, self-expression, and community building, with their creators and circulators potentially holding diverse motivations and levels of political knowledge. Some evidence suggests memes are used as persuasion tools to voice political arguments and critiques in an accessible format (Penney, 2020), with the potential to disrupt and challenge normative power structures while campaigning for political change (Moreno-Almeida, 2021; Mortensen & Neumayer, 2021).

Methods

This study aims to respond to the research question: How do meme creators perceive their role in disseminating political messages and shaping public discourse? Hence, a qualitative approach of semi-structured interviews was employed to explore insights into the motivations and experiences of individuals who create and share memes. This method has been chosen as it allows a deeper understanding of the motivation and intentions of meme creators, uncovering their beliefs, values, and ultimately political stances that inform their actions and influence their perceptions. Semi-structured interviews are used to explore the participants’ experiences in a manner in which they describe their perspectives (Harrell & Bradley, 2009), thus aligning with the scope of the research—producing a nuanced understanding of the strategies, perceptions, challenges, and motivations of political meme creators.

Nevertheless, despite the difficulty of interviewing meme creators due to the inherent need for anonymity, six of the most popular Romanian political meme page creators out of 20 were successfully interviewed. The interviews were recorded digitally between December 2020 and March 2024 and were held online due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the different cities and countries the interviewees were in at the time of the interview. The interviews lasted approximately 60 minutes and were conducted in Romanian, as both the participants and I share the same language, making it easier for the participants to express themselves. During and after the interview process, notes were taken assessing the facial expressions, intonation, and emotional state of the interviewees, on the premise that non-verbal communication provides another element for interpretation (Ekman, 1964). The interviews were later transcribed and analyzed through a thematic analysis approach using NVivo, undertaking an inductive coding approach (Mayring, 2015). Despite the limitations imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic and geographical constraints, the digital format of the interviews facilitated access to a diverse range of perspectives and experiences within the meme-creator community.

The Romanian political meme pages ranged between 15,000 likes and 53,000 during the process of the interviews. It is important to note that all the meme creators were male, with ages ranging from 25 to 43, reflecting an age discrepancy and a lack of women representation in the meme-creation environment. The only known female meme creator refused to take part in the research. The selection criteria based on the popularity of meme pages allowed for a varied sample, capturing insights from creators with differing levels of influence and engagement within the online political discourse. In addition, the gender disparity observed among the participants underscores the need for further exploration into the factors contributing to the underrepresentation of women in meme creation and its potential implications for political communication and participation. The diverse range of topics covered suggests a multifaceted approach to understanding the importance of memes and, ultimately, meme creators in political communication.

The key aspects covered in the interviews include the interaction and engagement dynamics surrounding political memes, such as patterns of discussion, intentional posting for reactions, and types of memes with high engagement. The interviews also explored the potential influence and impact of political memes, including their political effects, the impact of meme templates, and their role in electoral campaigns. In addition, the content and characteristics of political memes are examined, including criteria for classification, the need for context, features of politicians turned into memes, and the significance of text. Finally, the broader ecosystem in which these memes operate is considered, such as attitudes toward different parties, comment moderation, social media algorithms, and strategies for page management. Overall, the interviews generated a comprehensive discussion of the complex role of memes in political communication.

Findings

This section explores the emerging two central themes from the semi-structured interviews with the meme creators. The first theme investigates the self-perception of their influence in the political arena and analyses whether meme creators can be considered “political actors” due to their ability to influence public opinion and political discourse. The second theme examines the meme creators’ perceptions of their role in creating and disseminating political memes and their perceived accountability.

To fully comprehend the narratives presented by the respondents, it is important to provide an overview of Romania’s political and media system. Since the fall of communism in 1989, Romania’s media and political landscapes have both undergone significant transformations, highlighting the broader challenges and opportunities of the post-communist transition. The media environment, once tightly controlled by the state, has evolved into a diverse and liberalized sector, featuring a mix of public and private broadcasters, print media, and an expanding array of digital platforms (Gross, 2023; Mungiu-Pippidi, 2018). This transition, while fostering greater media freedom, has also introduced new challenges such as media ownership concentration, political interference, and self-censorship, which often result in biased reporting (Coman & Karadjov, 2021). The rapid rise of digital media, driven by increased internet penetration and social media usage, has further complicated the landscape, enabling greater access to information and enhancing public discourse but also contributing to the spread of misinformation and disinformation (Armanca & Gross, 2020). Platforms like Facebook have become central to public debate and political narratives, although the regulatory framework struggles to maintain accountability and transparency in the digital space (Dragomir & Aslama Horowitz, 2021).

Similarly, Romania’s political context is marked by a multifaceted interplay of historical legacies and post-communist transitions. The shift from a one-party system to a multiparty democracy has been marred by political instability, corruption, and the lingering influence of former communist elites, which perpetuate clientelism within the democratic framework (Gallagher, 2005; Pusca, 2018; Tismaneanu, 2003). Since becoming part of the European Union in 2007, the country has been in a continuous state of judicial reforms and anti-corruption efforts; however, these reforms face persistent domestic challenges, including weak governance structures and public skepticism toward political institutions (Mungiu-Pippidi, 2015). The rise of populism and nationalism in recent years, fuelled by economic disparities and concerns over national identity, has further polarized the political environment (Dobrei, 2017; Vörös & Bretter, 2022). Despite these challenges, significant civil society mobilization, such as the protests against controversial judicial reforms in 2017 and 2018, reflects the active role of citizens in challenging governmental overreach and advocating for democratic governance (Abăseacă & Pleyers, 2019; Arpad, 2017). Thus, Romania’s media and political systems are navigating the complex interplay between the legacies of the past, the pressures of modernization, and the ongoing struggle for a transparent and accountable governance framework (Berry, 2017; Marincea, 2021). Figure 1 presents the overview of the political parties that are in government and opposition, as well as their political leaning.

Figure 1.

Political landscape of Romania.

The Meme Creators as Emerging Political Actors

This theme focuses on the meme creators’ acknowledgment of their ability to sway perceptions toward or against certain political entities, using memes as political criticism, satire, and counter-narratives (Milner, 2018; Shifman, 2013).

Memes as Tools for Marketing, Public Relations, and Political Influence

The findings reveal that meme creators, like any other form of content creators across the media landscape, strategically design and disseminate their content to reach and resonate with specific audiences across various platforms (Boulianne et al., 2020; Jenkins & Ito, 2015). The participants are not only aware of their ability to shape narratives and construct frames, but they perceive memes as potent communication tools that can compress complex ideas and narratives into emotionally resonant and inherently shareable content (Beskow et al., 2020; Guadagno et al., 2013):

I see them [memes] as a form of online marketing message, kind of edgy and guerrilla-style. I can’t define them exactly. It’s a highly compressed and easily understandable message. It’s like a slogan or an image that people can associate easily. Currently, memes seem to bring people together better than political platforms. (PARTICIPANT2)

This perception of memes’ potential to shape public discourse and act as a marketing tool is shared by another creator: “They can be used as a kind of PR, especially now, on social media pages.” (PARTICIPANT4). Thus, meme creators use memes to frame political actors and narratives to advance their interests or agendas, something deeply intertwined with the concepts of media framing and agenda-setting (Kulkarni, 2017; McCombs & Shaw, 1972). Hence, meme creators believe that they can persuade individuals to shift their attention to the frames they put forward, leading to an increased chance of changing opinions and perceptions. They contribute to the creation of a new social reality, amplifying or solidifying existing narratives and opinions about political actors:

When a meme goes viral, there’s even the part of brand recognition, you know, when you keep seeing the same characters and you start to recognise them. You somewhat create a different perception about them, because you’re not just drowned in news, and negative things about X, Y, and Z. Maybe you see a funny meme, maybe you relate to a character. So, it’s a method of both harming someone’s image but also doing good. (PARTICIPANT6)

Hence, meme creators consider themselves decentralized, bottom-up forces that introduce a challenge toward traditional established political institutions and media entities through a new form of communication model: memes. This is achieved through humor and satire as a means of revealing and exploring lesser-known aspects, leading to the potential of memes to shape perceptions, even if not consciously: “So, when you’re merely poking fun at a situation, not so much, but when you’re shedding light on something new or less known, it can be impactful” (PARTICIPANT1). Furthermore, the deliberate curation and framing of content reveals a high level of awareness of their influence, self-positioning themselves as an influential force in the political arena. This aligns with the notion of “meme-ing reality” (Shifman, 2013), where memes respond to and shape political narratives. Thus, meme creators intentionally create memes to generate reactions and discussions, actively participating in framing political narratives and setting the agenda and discourse: “We try through most of the posts to explain or influence the discourse towards a certain position” (PARTICIPANT6).

Wiggins (2019) emphasizes the crucial role that media narratives play in the creation, dissemination, and impact of memes, considering that memes are deeply intertwined with the media narratives they emerge from, often serving as reflections, critiques, or reinforcements of these narratives. Hence, memes can amplify certain perspectives, challenge dominant ideologies, or reinforce existing beliefs, making them a significant force in contemporary digital communication through how they are used by online communities to create new meanings. The iterative process of meme creation, where content is continually remixed and redistributed, allows for the ongoing reinterpretation of media narratives, making memes a dynamic tool for engaging with and influencing public discourse. The findings suggest that meme creators acknowledge their ability to sway perceptions toward or against certain political entities, using memes as discursive tools that contribute to the construction of political reality and narratives, acting as a means of political criticism, satire, and counter-narratives (Bebić & Volarevic, 2018; Mortensen & Neumayer, 2021). However, they suggested that their coordinated efforts have the potential to change users’ minds and influence their political views by leveraging the repetitive nature of memes and the cognitive biases they entail, reinforcing narratives and playing a crucial role in shaping long-term public perceptions toward political actors:

Normally, these images would come and go, but due to meme creators, I believe the world sees how ridiculous they are, which can gradually alter their opinions. (PARTICIPANT1)

If they all get together, those who make jokes like that, and start making fun of you, who knows, people might change their minds and start doing things like that, they might even change people’s opinions. (PARTICIPANT5)

It suggests that collective reinforcement creates a sense of consensus, where memes, as cultural artifacts, embed shared meanings and values, leading individuals to reassess their own opinions or beliefs. The creation and dissemination of memes in the digital age carry significant social and political implications as they often reflect and perpetuate existing societal norms and hegemonies, especially as meme culture is deeply rooted in the socio-demographic background of its creators, who are typically young, privileged, and often male (Shifman, 2013; Vickery, 2014). Several researchers have analyzed the unregulated power of memes as tools of political persuasion, raising concerns about the potential for memes to perpetuate harmful ideologies or incite violence as they can polarize and mobilize online communities (Al-Rawi, 2021; Johann, 2022; Paz et al., 2021). Memes are often emotionally charged as they often fuse humor with politically oriented anger, providing an emotional release for audiences while simultaneously deepening political cynicism (Candor, 2020; Griffin, 2021; Lynch, 2022), which can lead to the spread of political misinformation and the trivialization of complex social issues, further deepening their role in digital discourse (Dupuis & Williams, 2019; Journell & Clark, 2019; Lynch, 2022).

Hence, the frequent expression of anger and hostility in memes highlights their potential to undermine public trust in government, perpetuate harmful ideologies, or incite violence (DeCook, 2018; Wagener, 2023). The anonymity and virality associated with meme culture often shield creators from accountability, allowing toxic behaviors to flourish unchecked and appropriate identities without permission, fuelling the creation of demeaning memes (Highfield, 2017; Phillips, 2015; Vickery, 2014). This conformity to group norms and the persuasive power of collective meme creation is further exemplified:

You can actually influence someone’s vote, but you don’t see a meme and say, “Oh, this is right, look at what kind of person this [politician] is.” No. It has to be a collective thing. There have to be more people, or a single person can’t post 20 memes on the same subject, because that would be a form of harassment. No, it has to be collective, especially if you follow memes, I think you have to see the same opinion from more people to change it [your opinion] in some way. (PARTICIPANT5)

Hence, the collective nature of meme-based political influence suggests a highly sustained and coordinated effort, with multiple memes expressing a similar opinion needed to influence public opinion and potentially impact voting behavior. The emphasis on interactivity and relatability aligns with the concept of participatory culture and audience engagement (Jenkins, 2006), where audiences actively co-create and circulate content:

Memes leave some room for interaction, in the sense that they make you comment, maybe they make you tag someone, maybe they make you share, and so on. They should be as relatable as possible, that’s the main point for them to work. (PARTICIPANT6)

The focus on relatability underscores the importance of cultural resonance in meme creation, as memes often draw upon shared experiences and cultural references to resonate with their intended audience.

Memes as Cultural and Generational Communication Tools

It could be argued that the adaptability and emphasis on the cultural relevance of memes have placed them within a historical context, evolving from traditional forms of satire and commentary and creating a language that bridges generational divides and speaks to contemporary audiences. This is reflected in the meme creators’ position in continuing the long-standing practices of using humor to critique and shape political narratives:

[. . .] in Romania, like in France, we have a history in this part of political humour. Until the ‘90s, alongside normal news and newspapers, Romanians used to buy Academia Cațavencu, which did something similar with various pictures, either manipulated or unmanipulated, with different captions. It’s what we are doing now with memes. (PARTICIPANT2)

This quote draws a historical parallel between the use of memes in contemporary political discourse and the political cartoons that were used to critique and satirize political figures and events, highlighting the evolution of political communication practices and their enduring cultural significance. The Romanian satirical magazine Academia Cațavencu is a prime example of political caricature culture, acting as a satirical commentary on contemporary and historical events and issues, developing their own stereotypes and nicknames of politicians. This clear link between cartoons and memes and the continuation of history are important elements that drive the meme creator further. The findings indicate that meme creators demonstrate an acute understanding of the viral potential of political memes, leveraging them to resonate with audiences, particularly younger demographics:

I believe they [memes] will start to have an increasingly bigger impact. They will be used more and more as a type of content on social media. Especially considering our generation, who grew up more with memes and Internet culture, and use these memes almost daily in various contexts. It’s like speaking the language of the future young electorate. (PARTICIPANT3)

Memes, as products of digital culture, play an increasingly significant role in shaping political discourse, particularly among younger generations who are more engaged in the unique internet cultural norms and preferences shaped by their experiences with technology and media. This is further emphasized by the differences between parties and the demographics they serve, highlighting the connection between meme culture and youth engagement with political parties, suggesting that some parties are more successful in leveraging memes due to their appeal to younger, more knowledgeable demographics:

USR ¹ is the best at it, and I fully understand why. In general, I haven’t seen much of it, but again there is a connection with the age groups that are attracted to and want to be involved with political parties, and I think it also has to do with knowledge in some way. If PSD ² and the PSD Youth page were to try making memes, I don’t think they would have as much success due to the knowledge of their supporters and their ages. (PARTICIPANT4).

However, meme creators understand that the effectiveness of political memes may be limited among older age groups with different media-consumption patterns and political attitudes:

When we communicate through memes, we mainly communicate to the youth, maybe towards millennials and such, but already after a certain age target, it doesn’t work as well. We get into other propaganda stuff, like those dubious pictures we see in comments. So, I would say that, although it has a super, super big impact on this youth target, I don’t know about the rest. (PARTICIPANT6)

This underscores the importance of understanding audience segmentation and tailoring communication strategies accordingly.

Memes as Interactive and Relatable Content for Audience Engagement

Memes are not just content to be consumed passively; they invite commentary, sharing, and communal interaction. This aspect of memes is crucial for their ability to influence opinions and create a sense of collective identity or movement. By curating content featuring prominent political figures or themes, meme creators enhance their ability to capture audience attention and facilitate rapid dissemination across online networks:

[memes show] what’s happening in society and . . . in which direction public perception is heading. For us, it was like a kind of survey. We looked at which memes received the most likes and concluded that a certain party is terrible. (PARTICIPANT2)

Meme creators can gain insights into the evolving attitudes and opinions of the public by tracking the prevalence and responses of targeting specific political figures or events, using memes as a form of “sociological survey.” This is exemplified by the same meme creator who expressed how meme creators track the popularity of their memes targeting specific politicians or parties, using it as a gauge for public perception and sentiment:

Facebook provides some sociological studies and very clear samples. You just look at the comments, you look at the reach, you look at which posts people hate, which ones they appreciate, and you also look at the people who comment. (PARTICIPANT2).

Hence, the popularity and engagement of their content can be used as a barometer to understand the shifting political landscape and public perceptions. Meme trends reflect broader societal discourses and power dynamics, serving as indicators of prevailing attitudes and ideologies. In turn, meme creators use social media metrics to determine which political actors are put into the spotlight and what is the consensus on them. Linking back to the media framing theories, meme creators act as agenda-setting agents by highlighting certain issues or individuals, influencing which topics receive attention in the public sphere:

I think they often help maintain a status quo. For example, memes about Viorica Dăncilă, we all knew she wasn’t the best prime minister, and I think in the end, memes about her helped maintain this status quo and amplify it. They amplified the general opinion of people about this character. (PARTICIPANT3)

In the case of the former prime minister, Viorica Dăncilă, meme creators have solidified a damaging image, which has perpetuated a negative general image of her. They have constantly attacked and created memes around her, perpetuating the stereotype that she is not intelligent. This reveals their potential to influence the salience and interpretation of political events (Dean, 2019; Ross & Rivers, 2017b). Nevertheless, meme culture is highly connected to the persistent patriarchal structures that pervade digital spaces, where regardless of the progress women have made in gaining access to leadership roles, they continue to be viewed as “space invaders” in political institutions, leading to them being depicted as lacking the capacity for powerful positions (Nee & De Maio, 2019; Runderkamp et al., 2022), figurative invisibility, and under-recognized political status (Puwar, 2004). Several researchers have shown how memes frequently reinforce these gender norms through online gender trolling that reinforces male dominance and isolates women (Mantilla, 2013), trivializing the feminist movement and marginalizing non-conforming identities (Banet-Weiser, 2018). The predominance of male creators in meme culture exacerbates these issues, as women’s perspectives are often misrepresented (Seargeant & Tagg, 2014), perpetuating stereotypes of women as the “weaker sex” (Devitt, 2002; Freedman et al., 2007). For instance, during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, female politicians like Hillary Clinton and Nancy Pelosi were depicted negatively, perpetuating gender stereotypes through memes (Hunting, 2020; Moody-Ramirez & Church, 2019).

Meme creators focus on the importance of cultural resonance in meme creation, as memes often draw upon shared experiences and cultural references to resonate with their intended audience. They try to appeal to diverse audiences and cultivate shared cultural narratives yet acknowledge the challenges of reaching older demographics who are less immersed in meme culture and internet vernacular. It reflects the strategic use of memes for marketing and influence, their cultural significance across generations, and their interactive nature as a tool for engagement.

Monetization of Memes

An interesting aspect that surfaced from the interviews is the commercialization of memes and the potential commercial aspect of meme creation, which highlights the convergence of media production and consumption within a capitalist economic system, where even grassroots forms of expression such as memes are subject to commercial exploitation and commodification:

There are even pages that change ownership and so on, and if you can consider it that way, in practice, communication advisors, including me, who have worked in the field and have made memes during work hours, so to speak, I have been paid for memes. So, yes, this happens here too, but maybe not so openly. (PARTICIPANT6)

Meme creators, although not openly acknowledging it, have been part of a growing trend of political parties and campaigns actively seeking to leverage the influence of meme creators. Yet, all the participants claimed that they do not rely on meme creation as their main income, and all of them are either still studying in higher education or having a stable profession. Thus, they were reticent to talk about their daily lives beyond meme creation due to wanting to remain anonymous and maintain a separation between their internet persona and themselves. The respondents did not want to disclose whether they have made use of the monetization of memes through brand partnerships, sponsored posts, and advertising revenue. However, they have alluded to the fact that communication advisors and meme creators are being paid and accepted to produce content that supports or promotes specific political entities or narratives:

[..] a party had offered us, I think, 10,000 euros to make it a viral campaign, and create supporting posts (PARTICIPANT1).

Politicians have already tried to buy, not the page itself, but to buy the work of people on the page and use that work for the benefit of the party. [. . .] I can only tell you one thing, this has been happening for a while now, and it will probably happen successfully. (PARTICIPANT5).

It could be argued that the respondents wanted to keep the discussion around money at a minimum, as they were allusive and overly protective about their reputation and the seemingly bottom-up approach they take in disseminating memes. The political parties’ attempts to leverage meme creators underscore recognition of the persuasive power of memes in influencing public opinion and seek to co-opt meme creators to advance their electoral agendas. It also blurs the boundaries between the perceived organic grassroots activism and partisan propaganda, as it directly confirms the existence of financial incentives for meme creators to produce content that supports particular parties or campaigns. This raises concerns about memes turning into tools for commercial purposes, and the potential risks to the integrity of democratic processes, leading to the creation of artificial grassroots movements or the dissemination of propaganda (Literat & Van Den Berg, 2019; Wiggins, 2019). However, others openly acknowledged their willingness to provide paid consultancy services to political actors seeking to promote their agendas through meme-based communication strategies on social media: “Honestly, if I want to promote a party, I go and present them an online strategy on their pages. [. . .] I would present them an invoice and a strategy related to their pages and another news page” (PARTICIPANT2). This underscores the potential for meme creators’ work to be appropriated and exploited for political gain, blurring the boundaries between organic, bottom-up activism and top-down strategic communication efforts.

Overall, the emergence of meme creators as political actors signifies a transformative shift in political communication and participation. They perceive themselves as agents of change by reshaping public discourse through strategic content creation, leveraging principles of media framing and agenda-setting. Meme creators continue the historical tradition of political satire, which turns them into modern-day influencers, emphasizing the symbiotic relationship between memes and political narratives. However, the commercialization of meme creation raises concerns about the integrity of political expression and the spread of misinformation, underscoring the need for media literacy and responsible content creation. Through the seemingly objective and “independent” character of memes, individuals can be easily manipulated to believe false information, especially if it is paid propaganda, part of a bigger misinformation campaign.

Navigating Ethics, Misinformation, and Audience Reactions

The findings highlighted the interconnectedness of traditional media and memes, where memes reflect and shape news cycles due to the rapid dissemination capabilities and viral nature of memes across online networks. It also highlighted the nuanced understanding of the ethical considerations and potential consequences associated with meme creators’ influential role in shaping public discourse.

The Interplay Between Memes and News Media

Boczkowski and Mitchelstein (2013) argued that the speed and ephemeral nature of online media can lead to a symbiotic relationship between news consumption and the production of user-generated content, such as memes: “So, the month of May was dry in terms of material because nothing was happening, there was no news, nothing. When there’s news, then there’s material. Or at least, it’s material that goes well.” (PARTICIPANT1).

Hence, this acknowledgment of meme creators to adapt their meme content based on the availability of news or current events, either by directly responding to newsworthy material or by exploring more niche or obscure topics, aligns with the concept of “meme diffusion” (Nahon & Hemsley, 2013; Shifman, 2013). It reflects the meme creators’ perception of their role in provoking high emotional reactions through political memes and the need to remain relevant and responsive to emerging issues: “without daily news, there wouldn’t be as many memes. There wouldn’t be as many topics” (PARTICIPANT5). The symbiotic relationship between memes and news has been highlighted in all interviews, and meme creators recognize the influence of traditional media on the themes and subjects explored through memes. Nevertheless, it is important to note the fact that there is not only high interest in finding, commenting, and disseminating memes stemming from news, but there is a strategic community-led activity behind it:

We also have a common chat where, when a potential meme-worthy news comes up, we share it among ourselves to get different perspectives and meme ideas from there. And lately, we even added someone who actually works in the press as a journalist. So, we’ll have direct access to the hottest news. (PARTICIPANT3)

Incorporating a journalist into their network further amplifies the recognition of the importance of direct access to news sources in shaping meme content and staying ahead of emerging issues. It suggests an even more direct link between memes and traditional news reporting, with meme creators potentially gaining early access to newsworthy information. This dynamic reflects the growing influence of social media and user-generated content in shaping public discourse and perceptions around current events.

I believe that memes actually precede the news. [. . .] memes probably beat the poor reporter who goes to do a report for a news segment, they need more time until they put it out, until they broadcast it. We immediately take a picture that we find interesting, we post it, we write a caption, a story there, and that’s it. Even if we don’t have time to open Canva or any other similar app to make edits. We just write the words there, take a picture of the TV, and that’s it, or well, we take a picture from somewhere, sometimes we even get pictures from inside sources and post them. (PARTICIPANT2)

This quote presents a contrasting perspective, suggesting that memes can precede and potentially influence traditional news reporting due to their ability to quickly capture and share images or content from various sources, including insider sources. Thus, it can allow the growth of an organic and grassroots form of information dissemination that can sometimes lead to or influence the news agenda. Memes are both reactive to and anticipatory of news events, and this reliance on news for meme content reflects how the flow of information fuels online discourse, with memes acting as a rapid-response tool to emerging stories.

Ethical Concerns: Misinformation and the Risks of Memes

However, meme creators expressed concerns about the potential for their content to be misinterpreted, taken out of context, or misused as inspiration for spreading misinformation, false narratives, and propaganda across online networks: “I’m sure many people take some memes seriously, and there are also many who simply get inspired. [individuals] get inspired by absolutely anything to create fake news, so why not from memes?” (PARTICIPANT5). This self-reflective perspective highlights meme creators’ awareness of the potential risks and unintended consequences associated with the spread of misinformation and maintaining the integrity of digital public spheres. For example, one meme creator recounted an instance where a seemingly innocent and satirical event they created transformed into a legitimate news story covered by mainstream media outlets. The creator shared the fake event among different meme page communities in which they stated that they would support an extremely controversial politician, Alexandru Cumpănașu, who was recently investigated by authorities (specifically, by the National Anticorruption Directorate). Popular mainstream newspapers and popular journalists shared the event and created news segments around it. This illustrates the striking balance between misinformation and satire and the potential impact of memes on mainstream media and public discourse, highlighting the need for responsibility and caution in creating memes that could potentially spread misinformation. It highlights the dual-edged nature of memes: while they can entertain and inform, they can also mislead and create false narratives.

Audience Reactions and Content Creator Responsibility

Furthermore, meme creators acknowledge the power of memes to elicit polarized responses, provoke strong emotions, and intentionally or unintentionally shape perceptions through strategic framing techniques: “I can be quite spiteful, and the fact that a certain thing generates reactions. [. . .] and the fact that people were upset indicates that we are heading in the right direction” (PARTICIPANT2). Meme creators display an understanding of the potential influence their platform can have in shaping narratives and fostering critical discourse among their audience, becoming hyper-aware of the responses they might receive: “It’s complicated. It’s like being in a bar, you know? If you start bashing PSD too much, USR and PNL ³ supporters come. If you start bashing PNL, the PNL supporters start running away” (PARTICIPANT2). This metaphor encapsulates the delicate balance in maintaining a safe environment when dealing with divergent political allegiances.

This dynamic resonates with the concept of “filter bubbles” (Pariser, 2011), audiences selectively engaging with content aligning with their pre-existing beliefs, underscoring the challenges meme creators face in reaching and resonating with diverse audiences. It reflects the meme creators’ adeptness in navigating the treacherous terrain of online political discourse, where content can swiftly devolve into accusations of propaganda and disinformation. The quotes reflect a complex dynamic where the goal of generating reactions sometimes conflicts with ethical boundaries.

The willingness to self-correct and remove problematic content demonstrates recognition of the potential impact of memes and the need for responsible content creation. Another creator took a similar approach when it came to moderation: “[. . .] you have 50,000 likes on a page, you don’t care if you lose 10–12 in a day. If they are the ones who swear, it’s better not to have them” (PARTICIPANT2). By curating content featuring prominent political figures or themes, meme creators enhance their ability to capture audience attention and facilitate rapid dissemination across online networks. In contrast to the previous quote, the same meme creator acknowledges a more permissive approach to approving and posting meme content, regardless of the targets or potential consequences:

But for the most part, we approve almost everything, regardless of who they target or the consequences. Sometimes we post a meme about Cioloș, and the “userists” get upset, or we post something about PNL, and the same goes for PSD. (PARTICIPANT2)

This statement suggests a willingness to provoke reactions from various political factions or groups by creating memes that critique or satirize different parties or figures, such as in the acknowledgment of the reactions and emotions elicited among “userists” (supporters of USR) or those aligned with PNL and PSD. Creators often prioritize engagement, sometimes at the cost of alienating parts of their audience or crossing lines into potentially harmful territory, using memes to hold those in power accountable, which can be a driving force behind provocative content. However, this potential for memes to generate controversy and backlash from different political groups has been embraced as part of their content strategy, through a high number of memes criticizing PSD, as expressed by creators when asked what the most targeted political party is:

I think most of them dislike PSD. That’s also the structure of our meme bubble on Facebook, meaning most of us started by targeting PSD continuously, then moved on to PNL and extremist parties. (PARTICIPANT3)

anti-PSD memes were primarily posted to get reactions. (PARTICIPANT4)

This perspective aligns with the concept of “echo chambers” (Sunstein, 2001), where individuals or communities reinforce their existing beliefs and perspectives by selectively engaging with content that aligns with their views. Yet, meme creators acknowledge the potential risks and unintended consequences associated with the influence of political memes:

And without realising it, we may idolise a person who is super negative, or create a very, very false perception about someone just because we found it very funny in a few memes. It’s a risk that we should always keep in mind, in my opinion, when we let ourselves be somewhat influenced by political memes and amusement. (PARTICIPANT6)

This demonstrates the creator’s awareness of the potential risks and negative consequences that can arise when political memes, fake news, and propaganda intersect. It highlights the need for a discerning lens to navigate the potential for humorous framing to obscure underlying biases or misrepresentations. It also points to another position that meme creators have undertaken as potential societal watchdogs, using their platforms to scrutinize the actions of political institutions and actors. This is further exemplified by the need for meme creators to be mindful of their content and its potential impact on shaping public discourse:

But no political party should be able to make any decision they, whenever they want, without anyone to tell them and hold them accountable. Yes, they need someone to keep them in check. (PARTICIPANT5)

If things go bad and nothing is regulated, and everything is free in this part. But we’re getting into a part where memes and this reality that should be funny and educational combine with fake news and propaganda that can be super negative. (PARTICIPANT6)

This pragmatic approach to audience management highlights the meme creators’ recognition of the potential for toxic or disruptive behavior within their online communities. By establishing moderation practices and guidelines, they position themselves as gatekeepers, curating their audiences to maintain desired levels of discourse and engagement, as well as continuously scrutinizing political actors.

Overall, these findings reveal that meme creators exhibit a sophisticated awareness of the educational and informational potential of their content, recognizing their influence in facilitating discussions, sparking debates, and enhancing public understanding of complex political issues. Meme creators navigate the intricate dynamics of media literacy, participatory culture, and information diffusion, leveraging humor, satire, and engaging formats to make political narratives more accessible and captivating for their audiences. It illustrates how content creators must navigate the delicate balance between being entertaining, informative, and responsible, while also acknowledging the potential risks of their work.

Conclusion

This research stands out as a nuanced exploration of the perception of the roles meme creators play in the context of Romania, allowing for the analysis of memes not just as vehicles for humor but as potent tools for political commentary, mobilization, and resistance. In a country with a unique socio-political landscape—characterized by persisting post-communist sentiments, ongoing political instability, and a vibrant, yet contentious public sphere, how meme creators engage with political content provides a rich understanding of how memes, as tools of political expression, reflect and influence public discourse. It reveals the self-perception of meme creators of their role as emerging political actors and their acknowledgment of their ability to shape narratives surrounding political entities. They demonstrate a keen awareness of media framing and agenda-setting principles (Kulkarni, 2017; McCombs & Shaw, 1972), as well as their collective power to shape perceptions through their online presence and meme-based communication. Meme creators position themselves as agents of change, leveraging memes as strategic communication tools to advance specific agendas or narratives, functioning under a revolutionary outlook while dealing with an inner conflict paradigm due to the constraints put forward by traditional politics (Bebić & Volarevic, 2018; Mortensen & Neumayer, 2021). The research highlights the multifaceted roles that meme creators play, simultaneously acting as digital activists, informal political commentators, and creative artists seeking outlets for self-expression.

Meme creators exhibit a sophisticated understanding of the educational and informational potential of their content and seek to foster informed political participation and critical engagement with socio-political topics, using memes as tools for political education and civic engagement. Notably, the research unveils the intricate interplay between meme creation, news cycles, and the meme creators’ navigation of them. Meme creators perceive their content as a reflection of current events and a means to hold political parties and figures accountable and recognize the persuasive power of collective reinforcement. This symbiotic relationship between memes and news highlights the evolving dynamics of information flow and the potential for meme creators to influence mainstream media narratives and public perception.

In addition, this research sheds light on the ethical considerations and audience reactions that meme creators navigate. They demonstrate a nuanced understanding that their memes can cause polarized responses and the need to balance creative expression with responsible content-creation practices. Meme creators acknowledge the risks associated with the influence of political memes, such as the potential for misinformation, propaganda, and the unintended shaping of public perception (Boulianne et al., 2020; Pariser, 2011; Sunstein, 2001). This awareness underscores the importance of media literacy, ethical standards, and measures to mitigate the spread of biased narratives or false information. An additional ethical consideration is the commercialization and potential instrumentalization of meme-based political communication (Boczkowski & Mitchelstein, 2013). Meme creators acknowledge the monetization of their content through brand partnerships, sponsored posts, and advertising revenue, highlighting the convergence of media production and consumption within a capitalist economic system. More concerningly, the research uncovers instances of political parties and campaigns actively seeking to leverage the influence of meme creators by offering compensation for content creation aligned with their interests. This trend raises critical questions about the boundaries between political expression and commercial interests, as well as potential propaganda efforts.

However, it is crucial to acknowledge the cultural and contextual limitations inherent in this study, considering that the results are intimately connected to the Romanian context. Without a doubt, Romania’s historical experiences, cultural narratives, and political structures are shaping how memes are created and disseminated, something that may not be directly transferable to other countries or regions that have different historical backgrounds, socio-political dynamics, or levels of media freedom. Yet, despite being anchored in Romania, the study highlights a universally relevant phenomenon: the impact of this new form of decentralized, grassroots participatory culture that shapes and reshapes political narratives, public opinion, and ultimately the political landscape. This research highlights the need for further research in different socio-cultural contexts to fully understand the diverse ways in which memes can impact political discourse across the globe, emphasizing the need for fostering responsible content creation, promoting media literacy, and safeguarding democratic processes in the face of rapidly changing communication technologies.