A Systematic Review of Phytochemical Constituents of Golden Camellia Species

Abstract

Golden camellia is a group of valuable and precious medicinal herbs belonging to the Camellia genus, Theaceae family, which exhibited many biological activities such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic properties. All studies on the chemical composition of all parts of the golden camellia species published in three reputable databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, and CNKI) up to October 1, 2023 were included in this review. Nearly 380 phytochemical compounds have been reported in many species of golden camellia, including flavonoids, saponins, volatile components, megastigmanes, α-pyrone derivatives, vitamins, amino acids, and so on. Our review provided a comprehensive overview of the chemical composition of several species of golden camellia reported in reputable databases, thereby contributing scientific evidence for this valuable group of medicinal herbs.

Keywords

Golden camellia species chemical constituents flavonoid saponin volatile components Theaceae

Introduction

Camellia is a well-known genus of plants belonging to the family Theaceae, with many species used in the food (as beverages) and pharmaceutical (supplement products) industries. Not only is it a familiar medicinal material widely researched in modern medicine, tea is also used in the traditional medicine of many Asian countries such as China, Japan, and Vietnam, with many outstanding benefits. Some species in the Camellia genus include Camellia sinensis, Camellia oleifera, Camellia japonica, and others.¹ The species within the Camellia genus can be classified into three subgroups based on flower color: white-flowered tea (white camellia), yellow-flowered tea (golden camellia), and red-flowered tea (red camellia).

Golden camellia is a group of valuable and precious medicinal herbs belonging to the Camellia genus, Theaceae family, naturally distributed in many Asian countries, with China and Vietnam having the climate and soil conditions most suitable for their growth, encompassing 52 recorded species.² Golden camellia is known as the “queen of teas” not only due to the bright yellow color of its flowers but also because of its medicinal and nutritional values. Many species of golden camellia have been studied and reported to exhibited various pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic properties.³ Furthermore, the chemical composition of golden camellia species has been extensively studied using both classical (column chromatography) and modern techniques (liquid chromatography, gas chromatography), focusing on groups of compounds such as flavonoids, saponins, essential oils, and phenolic acids. In our previous research, we conducted a systematic review of the pharmacological effects of several species of golden camellia.⁴ However, no comprehensive review has statistically summarized the chemical composition of golden camellia species reported in the literature. Therefore, we conducted this review to provide a comprehensive overview of the chemical composition of several golden camellia species reported in reputable databases, thereby contributing scientific evidence for this valuable group of medicinal herbs.

Methodology

All studies on the chemical composition of all parts of the golden camellia species (isolation, analysis using modern techniques such as gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, quantification) published in three reputable databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, and CNKI) up to October 1, 2023 were included in this review. Reviews or reports that lack high reliability (conference papers, theses, posters) were excluded during the search process.

Results

After the search process, a total of 45 articles met the selection criteria and were used for this review (15 articles in English and 30 articles in Chinese). Regarding chemical composition, 378 phytochemical compounds have been reported belonging to the groups of flavonoids (66 compounds), saponins (30 compounds), volatile oils (218 compounds), and other compounds (64 compounds) (Figure 1A).

Figure 1.

Research report statistics; (A) By compound groups; (B) By species; (C) By study design; (D) By research method.

Classified by golden camellia species, Camellia nitidissima was the most studied (18 articles), alongside other species such as Camellia chrysantha, Camellia euphlebia, Camellia hakodae, Camellia impressinervis, Camellia murauchii, Camellia buigiamapensis, and Camellia chuangtsoensis (Figure 1B).

Among the 45 reports on the chemical composition of golden camellia, there were 9 publications on the isolation of natural compounds, 23 reports on chemical composition using modern analytical techniques (10 reports using liquid chromatography methods and 13 reports using gas chromatography methods), and 13 articles on qualitative and quantitative methods for analyzing phytochemical compounds in golden camellia (Figure 1C and 1D).

Flavonoid Compounds

Sixty six flavonoid compounds (F1-F66) have been found, including 32 flavonoid aglycones and 34 flavonoid glycosides (Figure 2). Table 1 and Figure 3 provide detailed information on the flavonoid compounds found in various golden camellia species.

Figure 2.

Statistics of flavonoid compounds; (A) By subgroup; (B) By species; (C) By used parts; (D) By detection method.

Figure 3.

Chemical formula of flavonoids in golden camellia species (F1-F66). (Glc: Glucose, Rham: Rhamnose, Cin: Cinamate; Cou: Coumarate, Caf: Caffeoyl, Ac: Acetyl).

Table 1.

Flavonoid Compounds in Golden Camellia Species.

No	Chemical compound	Species	Used parts	Identification method
Flavan-3-ol derivatives
F1	Catechin (Catechol)^5–13	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC, GC
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	LC, I
		C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
F2	Catechin gallate¹²	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F3	Epicatechin (Epicatechol)^{5–8,10,12–16}	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	LC, GC
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
		C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F4	Epicatechin gallate¹²	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F5	Epigallocatechin^6,8,13,14	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
		C. hakodae	Flower	I
		C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F6	Epigallocatechin gallate¹²	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F7	Epiafzelechin¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
F8	Gallocatechin gallate^8,12	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
Anthocyanidin derivatives
F9	Anthocyanin^8,12	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F10	Pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside⁷	C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
Chalcone derivatives
F11	Narigenin chalcone¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F12	Phloretin¹⁷	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F13	Phloretin-3’,5'-di-C-β-glucoside¹⁵	C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
F14	Phlorizin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
Flavanone and flavanonol derivatives
F15	(2S,3S)-2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3-hydroxy-7-methylchroman-4-one¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F16	35,7-Trihydroxy-2-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)chroman-4-one¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F17	Anacardiin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F18	Aromadendrin (Dihydrokaempferol)^10,11,17	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC, I
F18	Aromadendrin (Dihydrokaempferol)^10,11,17	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC
F19	Astilbin¹⁸	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Leaf	I
F20	Dihydroquercetin^10,13	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F21	Eriocitrin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F22	Eriodictyol^6,7	C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
F23	Narigenin^13,14,19	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
		C. hakodae	Flower	I
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC
F24	Naringin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F25	Narirutin^6,7	C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
F26	Taxifolin^14,17,19	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
		C. hakodae	Flower	I
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC
Flavone and flavonol derivatives
F27	3,5,6,7,4'-Pentahydroxyflavone (6-Hydroxykaempferol)¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
F28	3-Cinnamoyltribuloside²⁰	C. nitidissima	Flower	I
F29	3-O-{2-O-[6-O-(phydroxy-trans-coumaryl)-glucosyl]-rhamnosyl}kaempferol¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F30	5,7,3’,4'-Tetramethoxyflavone¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
F31	5,7,3’,4’,5'-Pentamethoxyflavone¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
F32	5,7,4'-Trihydroxyflavone¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F33	6-C-pentosyl-8-C-hexosyl-apigenin¹⁵	C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
F34	6-hydroxy-kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside²¹	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
F35	7,3’,4'-Trimethoxy-5-hydroxyflavone¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
F36	Afzelin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F37	Apigenin-6,8-di-C-β-glucopyranoside (Vicenin-2)^22,23	C. nitidissima	Not mentioned	I
F37	Apigenin-6,8-di-C-β-glucopyranoside (Vicenin-2)^22,23	C. nitidissima	Leaf	GC
F38	Isoquercitrin (Quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside)^{12–14,18,19,24,25}	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC, LC, I
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	LC, I
		C. hakodae	Flower	I
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Leaf	I
F39	Isorhamnetin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F40	Isovitexin⁵	C. chrysantha	Leaf	LC
F41	Kaempferide¹²	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F42	Kaempferol^{5,8,12–14,16,19,25}	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC, GC, I
		C. hakodae	Flower	I
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
		C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F43	Kaempferol 3-O-[23,4-tri-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→3)-2,4-di-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)]-β-D-glucopyranoside²⁶	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
F44	Kaempferol-3-O-[23,4-tri-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→3)-4-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)]-β-D-glucopyranoside²⁶	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
F45	Kaempferol-3-O-[2-O-(trans-p-coumaroyl)-3-O-α-D-glucopyranosyl]-α-D-glucopyranoside¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
F46	Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside^6,7	C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
F47	Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside²³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F48	Kaempferol-p-coumarate¹⁰	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F49	Luteolin^6,7,13,19	C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC
F50	Luteolin-7-O-rutinoside^6,7	C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
F51	Multiflorin B²³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F52	Myricetin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F53	Quercetin^{8,12–14,17,19,24,25,27,28}	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	LC, I
		C. hakodae	Flower	I
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC, LC, I
		C. euphlebia	Leaf	LC
F54	Quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside¹⁸	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Leaf	I
F55	Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside-7-O-glucoside¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F56	Quercetin-3,7-O-diglucoside^6,7	C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
F57	Quercetin-4'-O-glucoside¹²	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
F58	Quercetin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside^{5,14,19,24,25}	C. nitidissima	Flower	I
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC, I
		C. hakodae	Flower	I
F59	Quercetin-7-O-(6''-O-E-caffeoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside²⁴	C. nitidissima	Flower	I
F60	Rutin (Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside)^{12,13,15–17,19,25,27}	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	LC, I
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC, LC, I
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
		C. euphlebia	Leaf	LC
F61	Sexangularetin 3-O-(2''-O-(E)-p-coumaroyl-β-D-glucopyranoside)¹⁴	C. hakodae	Flower	I
F62	Tiliroside¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F63	Vitexin^{5,13,19,23,25}	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F63	Vitexin^{5,13,19,23,25}	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	LC, I
Isoflavonoids
F64	Daidzein¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
F65	Genistin^6,7	C. chuangtsoensis	Leaf, Flower	LC
		C. nitidissima	Flower	LC
		C. impressinervis	Flower	LC
Biflavonoids
F66	Okicamelliaside²¹	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
F66	Okicamelliaside²¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC

(GC: Gas chromatography, LC: Liquid chromatography, I: Isolation)

The search results indicated that most flavonoid compounds in golden camellia species belong to the flavone and flavonol derivatives groups (58%, Figure 2A). Similarly, the highest number of flavonoid compounds were discovered and reported in Camellia nitidissima (51 compounds, Figure 2B). Liquid chromatography methods detected the most flavonoid compounds, with 13 compounds successfully isolated using liquid chromatography. Interestingly, 7 flavonoid compounds were detected using all three techniques (liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, and isolation).

Flavonoid is a group of secondary metabolites derived from shikimic acid, commonly found in medicinal herbs, responsible for many major biological effects such as anticancer, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, antidepressant, and hypoglycemic activities.^29,30 Alongside the isolation and/or analysis results, several biological effects of flavonoid compounds in golden camellia have also been reported. Compound F25 identified in the flowers of C. nitidissima exhibited the anti-inflammatory effects.²⁰ Two compounds, F53 and F60, have shown potential neuroprotective effects.²⁷ About the anti-tumor effect, the compound F59, a novel acyl derivative of flavonoid glycoside, exhibited cytotoxic activity against U937 lymphoma cells.²⁴ Moreover, the sexangularetin derivative F62 had mild to moderate cytotoxic effects on liver (HepG2), lung (Lu), and epidermal (KB) cancer cell lines.¹⁴ Three compounds, F1, F43, and F44, had inhibitory activity against the formation of advanced glycation end-products.²⁶ The antioxidant activity of flavonoid compounds decreased in the order of F59 > F1 > F3 > F42 > F65 > F40.⁵ Finally, the in silico pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity of flavonoid compounds decreased in the order of F42 > F47 > F63 > F37 > F33 > F51.²³

Interestingly, 4 compounds F38, F46, F60, F62 were first reported in the two species Camellia impressinervis and Camellia chuangtsoensis. Compound F10 was specific to Camellia nitidissima, while compound F58 was specific to Camellia chuangtsoensis.⁷

Saponin Compounds

Another group of compounds reported in golden camellia species were triterpenoid and steroidal saponins. So far, 30 compounds (S1-S30) have been discovered and reported, as presented in Figures 4, 5, and Table 2. Saponins are defined as glycosides with a large molecular weight containing triterpenoid or steroid aglycones,³¹ hence this group of compounds was less detected by chromatographic techniques and primarily reported after extraction, isolation, and structural determination processes (Figure 4D). Saponin compounds in golden camellia species predominantly featured oleanane and lanostane frameworks and were found largely in the leaves (Figures 4A and 4C).

Figure 4.

Statistics of saponin compounds; (A) By subgroup; (B) By species; (C) By used parts; (D) By detection method.

Figure 5.

Chemical formula of saponins in golden camellia species (S1-S30). (Rham: Rhamnose; GlcA: Glucuronide acid; Glc: Glucose; Ara: Arabinose; Gal: Galactose; 2S-M3H: 2S-Methylhept-3-en-2-yl; Iso-Bu: Isobut-2-en-1-yl; Ac: Acetyl; Araf: Arabinofuranose).

Table 2.

Saponin Compounds in Golden Camellia Species.

No	Chemical compound	Species	Used parts	Identification method
Lanostane-type triterpenoid saponins
S1	5α-Stigmasta-7,16-dien-3β-ol³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
S2	α-Spinasterol¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
S3	α-Spinasteryl-3-O-β-D-glycoside¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
S4	β-Sitosterol²⁵	C. chrysantha	Flower	I
S5	Daucosterol^16,25	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
S5	Daucosterol^16,25	C. chrysantha	Flower	I
S6	20-Glucopyranosylginsenoside Rf²³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
S7	Stigmast-7-en-3-ol¹⁸	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Leaf	I
S8	Stigmasta-7,22-diene-3-O-[α-L-arabinopyranosyl (1→2)]-β-D-galactopyranoside¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
S9	Stigmasterol¹⁸	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Leaf	I
Dammarane-type triterpenoid saponins
S10	Ginsenoside F1³³	C. euphlebia	Leaf	GC
S11	Ginsenoside F5³³	C. euphlebia	Leaf	I
S12	Ginsenoside Rg1^27,33	C. euphlebia	Leaf	I
S13	Vinaginsenoside R9²³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
Lupane-type triterpenoid saponins
S14	3β-Acetoxy-20-lupanol¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
S15	Betulin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
S16	Lupeol^13,25	C. chrysantha	Flower	I
Oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins
S17	3β,6α,13β-Trihydroxyolean-7-one¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
S18	3β-Acetoxy-6α,13β-dihydroxyolean-7-one¹⁸	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Leaf	I
S19	3-O-Acetyl oleanolic acid¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
S20	18-β-Glycyrrhetinic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
S21	A1-barrigenol-22a-angelate¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
S22	Arjunolic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
S23	β-Amyrin^16,28,32,34	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	I
S24	Camellioside I³⁵	C. buigiamapensis	Leaf	I
S25	Camellioside J³⁵	C. buigiamapensis	Leaf	I
S26	Eupatoric acid²⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	I
S27	Maslinic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
S28	Oleanolic acid^13,21,25	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	I
S28	Oleanolic acid^13,21,25	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
Ursane-type triterpenoid saponins
S29	α-Amyrin³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
S30	Ursolic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC

(GC: Gas chromatography, LC: Liquid chromatography, I: Isolation)

Among the 30 saponin compounds reported in golden camellia species, compound S9 showed potential neuroprotective effects, compound S24 exhibited moderate anti-inflammatory activity, and compound S21 demonstrated lung cancer cell inhibition effects.^11,27,35

Volatile Oils

The volatile oil components in various golden camellia species have been detected and reported using modern analytical techniques such as GC-MS (Figure 6D), revealing a total of 218 compounds (V1-V218) as detailed in Figures 6, 7, and Table 3. The structures of these volatile oil components across golden camellia species were diverse, rich, and distributed in both leaves and flowers (Figures 6A and 6C). Among the 196 compounds found in leaves, 101 compounds were also detected in the flowers of golden camellia. Interestingly, unlike flavonoids and saponins, the volatile oil components were reported in highest abundance in Camellia euphlebia (Figure 6B).

Figure 6.

Statistics of volatile oil compounds; (A) By subgroup; (B) By species; (C) By used parts; (D) By detection method.

Figure 7.

Chemical formula of volatile compounds in golden camellia species (V1-V218).

Table 3.

Volatile Compounds in Golden Camellia Species.

No	Chemical compound	Species	Used parts	Identification method
Alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons
V1	11,6-Trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V2	1,2-Epoxynonadecane³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V3	1,2-Epoxyoctadecane³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V4	1,4-Dimethylcyclooctane³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V5	1,5-Dibromopentadecane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V6	1,7,11-Trimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)cyclotetradecane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V7	1-Bromodecane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V8	1-Bromoeicosane⁸	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
V9	1-Bromo-tetradecane (1-Tetradecane bromide)^8,37	C. chrysantha	Flower, Leaf	GC
V10	1-Chloroeicosane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V11	1-Iodoctadecane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V12	1-Iodohexadecane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V13	1-Methyl-2-octylcyclopropane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V14	1-Nonadecanyl chloride³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V15	2,4-Dimethylhexane³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V16	2,6,10,14-Tetramethylhexadecane³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V17	2,6,10,15-Tetramethylheptadecane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V18	2,6,11-Trimethyldodecane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V19	2,11-Dimethyldodecane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V20	2-Propenylcyclohexane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V21	3-Methyladamantane³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V22	3-Methylnonane³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V23	4,5-Dimethylnonane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V24	4-Methylhexadecane⁸	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V25	α-Curcumene³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V26	Cyclotetracosane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V27	Docosane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V28	Eicosane^8,37,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V29	Heneicosane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V30	Heptadecane^8,36,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V30	Heptadecane^8,36,37	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V31	n-Hexadecane (Cetane)^36,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V31	n-Hexadecane (Cetane)^36,39	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V32	Nonadecane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V33	n-Octadecane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V34	n-Undecylcyclohexane³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V35	Pentacosane^8,37,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V36	Pentadecane³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V37	(R)-(+)-1,2-Epoxydodecane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V38	Tetracosane^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V39	Tricosane^8,37,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
Alkenes
V40	1-Hexadecene^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V41	1-Nonadecene³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V42	24,4-Trimethyl-2-cyclohexene³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V43	2,5-Dimethyl-2-undecene³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V44	2,6,10,14,18-Pentamethyl-licosa-2,6,10,14,18-pentaene^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V45	3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecene³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V51	17-Pentatriacontene^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V46	α-Caryophyllene³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V47	α-Guaiene³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V48	Butenylcyclohexene³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V49	cis-β-Guaiene³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V50	cis,cis-5,9-Tetradecadiene³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V52	(Z)-9-Tricosene⁸	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
Alkynes
V53	25,5-Trimethyl-1-hexen-3-yne³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V54	cis-5,7-Dodecenyne³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
V55	1-Heptacosanol^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V56	1-Hexanol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V57	2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (2,6-Di-tert-butyl-p-cresol)^12,37,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V58	2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V59	2-Methoxy-5-aminophenol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V60	2-(Methylphenyl) isopropanol³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V61	2-Octadecyl-1,3-propanediol^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V62	2-(Oxoctadecyl)ethanol^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V63	3-Hexenol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V64	3-Octenol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V65	4-Hydroxy-3-tert-butylanisole^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V66	5-epi-7-epi-α-Eudesmol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V67	6-Methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-5-heptene-3-yn-2-ol^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V68	10-epi-γ-Eudesmol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V69	α-Eudesmol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V70	Agaruspirol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V71	α-Terpinol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V72	Borneol³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V73	Bulnesol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V74	Butylhydroxytoluene³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V75	cis-Anethol³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V76	Elemol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V77	γ-Eudesmol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V78	Guaiol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V79	Hexahydrofarnesol³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V80	Isoborneol³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V81	Isophytol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V82	Juniper camphor³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V83	neo-Intermedeol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V84	Nerol^34,38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V84	Nerol^34,38,39	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V85	Phytol^8,32,38	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
		C. impressinervis	Leaf
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower
V86	p-Isopropylbenzyl alcohol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V87	Prodox 146³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V88	Terpinen-4-ol³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V89	trans-Farnesol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V90	trans-Geraniol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V91	trans-Nerolidol³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V92	trans-Phytol³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
Aldehydes
V93	2,4-Decadienal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V94	2-Decenal³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V95	(2E,6E)-3,7,11-Trimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrienal³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V96	2-Isoprenyl-5-methylhex-4-enal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V97	2-Hexenal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V98	3,5-Di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V99	α-Cyclocitral³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V100	β-Cyclocitral³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V101	Benzaldehyde^36,38	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V101	Benzaldehyde^36,38	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V102	Benzeneacetaldehyde (Phenylacetaldehyde)^38,39	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V102	Benzeneacetaldehyde (Phenylacetaldehyde)^38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V103	cis-2-Nonenal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V104	cis-4-Heptenal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V105	Citral³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V106	Decanal^38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V106	Decanal^38,39	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V107	Dodecanal³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V108	(E,E)-2,4-Dodecadienal³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V109	(E,E)-2,4-Heptadienal³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V110	Epoxy-β-ionone³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V111	Heptanal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V112	Lauraldehyde³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V113	Lilac aldehyde A³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V114	n-Hexanal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V115	Nonanal^36,38,39	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit
		C. impressinervis	Leaf
V116	Nonenal³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V117	Octadecanal³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V118	Octanal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V119	o-Tolualdehyde³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V120	Safranal^36,38	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V120	Safranal^36,38	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V121	Tetradecanal^36,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V121	Tetradecanal^36,39	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V122	trans-2-Decenal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V123	trans-2-Octenal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V124	trans-2-Undecenal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V125	trans-5-Methyl-2-isopropyl-2-hexen-1-al³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V126	trans,cis-2,6-Nonadienal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V127	trans,trans-2,4-Decadienal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V128	trans,trans-2,4-Heptadienal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V129	trans,trans-2,4-Octadienal³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V130	Tridecenal³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V131	Undecanal³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V132	(Z)-3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-octadienal³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
Ketones
V133	1-(5,5,8a-Trimethyl)naphthone³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V134	2,3,4,5,6-Pentamethyl acetophenone³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V135	2,3-Dehydro-α-ionone³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V136	2-Methyl-6-(4-methyl-1,3-cyclo-hexadien-1-yl)-2-hepten-4-one³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V137	3-Chloro-benzalacetone³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V138	3-trans-5-cis-Pseudoionone³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V139	4-[22,6-Trimethyl-7-oxabicylo[4.1.0]hept-1-yl]-3-buten-2-one³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V140	4-(26,6-Trimethylcyclohex-2-en-1-yl) but-3-en-2-one³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V141	4-Oxoisophorone³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V142	6,10,14-Trimethyl-2-pentadecanone^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V143	(6S)-2-Methyl-6-(4-methylphenyl)hept-2-en-4-one³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V144	7,9-Di-tert-butyl-1-oxaspiro[4.5]decenedione³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V145	α-Ionone^36,38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
		C. impressinervis	Leaf
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower
V146	β-Damascenone^38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V146	β-Damascenone^38,39	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V147	β-Ionone (trans-β-Ionone)^36,38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
		C. impressinervis	Leaf
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower
V148	cis-β-Damascenone³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V149	Dehydro-β-ionone³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V150	Farnesyl acetone^38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V150	Farnesyl acetone^38,39	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V151	Geranyl acetone^36,38	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V151	Geranyl acetone^36,38	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V152	Germacrone³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V153	Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V154	Melilotal³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V155	Phytone^34,38,39	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit
		C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower
V156	Pseudoionone (trans,trans-Pseudoionone)^36,38	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V156	Pseudoionone (trans,trans-Pseudoionone)^36,38	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V157	5-Ethyl-6-methyl-3E-hepten-2-one³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V158	Sulcatone³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V159	Tetrahydrogeranyl acetone³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V160	trans,trans-3,5-Octadien-2-one³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
Acids
V161	1,6-Octadien-3-ol-3,7-dimethylpropanoic acid³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V162	7,10-Dienhexadecanoic acid (7,10-Hexadecadienoic acid)^8,32	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
V162	7,10-Dienhexadecanoic acid (7,10-Hexadecadienoic acid)^8,32	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V163	7-Octadecenoic acid³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V164	Caproic acid (Hexanoic acid)^36,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V164	Caproic acid (Hexanoic acid)^36,39	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V165	Chlorogenic acid^8,38	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
V165	Chlorogenic acid^8,38	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V166	cis-9-Hexadecenoic acid³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V167	Decanoic acid^34,38	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V167	Decanoic acid^34,38	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V168	Dodecanoic acid^32,37	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V168	Dodecanoic acid^32,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V169	(E)-9-Octadecenoic acid³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V170	Erucic acid³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V171	Heptadecanoic acid³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V172	Icosanoic acid³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V173	Lauric acid³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V174	Lignoceric acid³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V175	Linoleic acid^32,34,39	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit
V176	Linolenic acid³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V177	Myristic acid³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V178	Octadecanoic acid (Stearic acid)^37,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V179	Palmitic acid^32,34,39	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
		C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit
V180	Pelargonic acid^36,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V180	Pelargonic acid^36,39	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V181	Tetradecanoic acid^32,39	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V181	Tetradecanoic acid^32,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
Esters
V182	4-Tridecyl-2-thiophenacetate^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V183	Benzyl benzoate³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V184	cis-3-Hexenyl benzoate³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V185	cis-3-Hexenyl butyrate³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V186	Dibutyl phthalate^8,36–38	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
		C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower
		C. impressinervis	Leaf
V187	Diisobutyl phthalate³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V188	Diisodecyl phthalate³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V189	Dimethyl phthalate^8,34,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V189	Dimethyl phthalate^8,34,37	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V190	Dotriaconyl trifluoroacetate^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V191	Ethyl linoleate³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V192	Ethyl linolenate³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V193	Ethyl palmitate^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V194	Fungacetin³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V195	Methyl palmitate³⁹	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V196	Methyl salicylate³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V197	Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate³²	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
V198	Octatriaconyl pentafluoropropionate^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V199	Phthalide³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V200	trans-2-Octenyl tiglate³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V201	Triacontyl acetate^8,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower	GC
V202	Triacontyl heptafluorobutyrate³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V203	Tridecyl pentafluoropropionate³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
Heterocyclic compounds
V204	1-Acetyl-19,21-epoxy-15,16-dimethoxy-aspidospermidin-17-ol³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V205	1-(Ethylthiocarbamoyl) piperidine-3-carboxamide³⁴	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Not mentioned	GC
V206	2-(7-Dodecynyloxy)tetrahydro-2H-pyran³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V207	2-Ethyl-3-methylmaleimide³⁶	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V208	2-Formylfuran³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V209	2-Pentylfuran^36,38	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V209	2-Pentylfuran^36,38	C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V210	44,7-Trimethyl-5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-1-benzofuran-2(4H)-one (5,6,7,7a-Tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-2(4H)-benzofuranone)^8,36	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
V210		C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V211	4,4,7a-Trimethyl-5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-benzofuran 2(4H)-one^36,37	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V211		C. impressinervis	Leaf	GC
V212	cis-5-Isopropenyl-2-methyl-2-vinyl-tetrahydrofuran³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V213	cis-Linalool oxide³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V214	Dodecenyl succinic anhydride³⁷	C. chrysantha	Leaf	GC
V215	Linalool^38,39	C. chrysantha	Leaf, Flower, Fruit	GC
V215	Linalool^38,39	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V216	trans-Linalool oxide³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V217	trans-2-(2-Pentenyl)furan³⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	GC
V218	Undecenyl succinic anhydride⁸	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC

(GC: Gas chromatography)

Other Compounds

Several other compounds in various golden camellia species have been detected or isolated, belonging to derivative groups such as ellagic acid, megastigmane, phenolic compounds, amino acids, and vitamins, with totaling 64 compounds (O1-O64) as reported in Figures 8, 9, and Table 4. Amino acid was the most frequently detected group with 21 compounds. Interestingly, most of these compounds have been reported in the flowers of golden camellia species (Figure 8C). Furthermore, these compounds were reported independently and did not overlap between detection methods.

Figure 8.

Statistics of other compounds; (A) By subgroup; (B) By species; (C) By used parts; (D) By detection method.

Figure 9.

Chemical formula of other compounds in golden camellia species (O1-O64).

Table 4.

Other Compounds in Golden Camellia Species.

No	Chemical compound	Species	Used parts	Identification method
Megastigmane compounds
O1	(3R,6R,7E)-3-hydroxy-4,7-megastigmadien-9-one¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
O2	Camellistigoside A³⁵	C. buigiamapensis	Leaf	I
O3	Camellistigoside B³⁵	C. buigiamapensis	Leaf	I
O4	Icariside B₁³⁵	C. buigiamapensis	Leaf	I
O5	(6S,9R)-Roseoside³⁵	C. buigiamapensis	Leaf	I
α-Pyrone derivatives
O6	3,4-Methylenedioxy-3'-O-methyl-4'-O-glucoside ellagic acid²¹	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
O7	3,4-O,O-Methylidyne-ellagic acid²¹	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
O8	3-Methyl-6-hydroxy-8-methoxy-3,4-dihydroisocoumarin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O9	7-Hydroxycoumarin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O10	Camellia A²¹	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
O11	Coumarin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O12	Ellagic acid^9,21,34	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	LC
O13	Esculin¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
Phenylpropanoid compounds
O14	Ferulic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O15	Garcinol¹⁷	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O16	Methoxycinnamic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O17	Neochlorogenic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O18	p-Coumaric acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
Phenolic acid compounds
O19	Protocatechuic acid²⁵	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
O20	Rhein¹⁷	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O21	Vanillin²⁵	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
Alkaloids
O22	Betain¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O23	Caffeine¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O24	Theobromine¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
Amino acids
O25	Alanine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O26	Arginin⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O27	Aspartic acid⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O28	Gamma amino butyric acid⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O29	L-theanine²⁷	C. euphlebia	Leaf	LC
O30	Cystine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O31	Glutamine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O32	Glycine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O33	Histidine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O34	Isoleucine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O35	Leucine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O36	L-glutamic acid^27,40	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O36	L-glutamic acid^27,40	C. euphlebia	Leaf	LC
O37	L-phenylalanine^27,40	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O37	L-phenylalanine^27,40	C. euphlebia	Leaf	LC
O38	Lysine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O39	Methionine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O40	Proline⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O41	Serine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O42	Threonine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O43	Tryptophane⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O44	Tyrosine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O45	Valine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
Vitamins
O46	Nicotinic acid¹⁷	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O47	Pyridoxine¹⁷	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O48	Vitamin E^8,32	C. euphlebia	Not mentioned	GC
O48	Vitamin E^8,32	C. chrysantha	Flower	GC
Glycoside compounds
O49	2-[[(9Z,12Z,15Z)-1-Oxo-9,12,15-octadecatrien-1-yl]oxy]-3-[(1-oxooctyl)oxy]propyl-β-D-glucopyranoside¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
O50	(2S)-2-(Acetyloxy)-3-[[(9Z)-1-oxo-9-octadecen-1-yl]oxy]propyl-β-D-galactopyranoside¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
O51	3-[(1-Oxo-9,12,15-octadecadienyl)oxy]-2-[(1-oxo-9,12,15-octadecatrienyl)]oxy-β-D-glucopyranoside¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
O52	3-[(1-Oxo-9,12-octadecadienyl)oxy]-2-[(1-oxo-9,12,15-octadecatrienyl)oxy]propyl-β-D-glucopyranoside¹¹	C. nitidissima	Leaf	I
O53	Eucryphin¹⁸	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Leaf	I
O54	p-(Hydroxymethyl) phenol 5-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1→2)-β-D-(4-O-p-coumaryl)-glucopyranoside²¹	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
Others
O55	1,6-Caprolactam²⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	I
O56	Abscisic acid¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O57	Carvone¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O58	Eucalyptol¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O59	n-Dotriacontanol²¹	C. chrysantha	Leaf	I
O60	Nootkatone¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC
O61	n-Tetratriacontanol¹⁶	C. nitidissima var longistyla	Root	I
O62	Serotonine⁴⁰	C. pubipetala	Leaf	LC
O63	Tritriacontane²⁸	C. nitidissima	Leaf, Flower	I
O64	Zingerone¹³	C. nitidissima	Leaf	LC

(GC: Gas chromatography, LC: Liquid chromatography, I: Isolation)

Compound O12 exhibited antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 through bactericidal mechanisms, reducing bacterial toxicity (inhibiting procyanin production), inhibiting swarm motility, and suppressing swimming ability.³⁴ Two compounds, O23 and O29, showed potential neuroprotective effects.²⁷ In 2017, Xu and colleagues extracted, isolated, and purified polysaccharides from the leaves of C. chrysantha. Their study revealed that the polysaccharides in C. chrysantha leaves were composed of monosaccharides including rhamnose, fructose, and galactose.⁴¹

Qualitative and Quantitative Researches

In addition to studies on extraction, isolation, or chemical composition analysis, research on developing quantification methods for phytocompounds in golden camellia species was also conducted (Table 5).

Table 5.

Studies on Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Selected Compounds/Groups of Compounds in Golden Camellia Species.

No	Author (Year)	Species	Compounds	Methods/Results
HPLC method
1	Zou et al 2009⁴²	C. chrysantha (Leaf)	Quercetin	- Conditions: C₁₈ column (250 × 4.6 mm; 5.0 μm), methanol – phosphoric acid 0.6% (52:48), flow rate 1 mL/min, column temperature 25 °C, wavelength 365 nm. - Sample preparation: ethanol 75%, hydrochloride acid 40% hydrolysis for 2 h.
2	Zhang et al 2011⁴³	C. chrysantha (Leaf)	1. Kaempferol 2. Quercetin 3. Luteolin	- Conditions: C₁₈ column (250 × 4.6 mm; 5.0 μm), methanol – phosphoric acid 0.6% (52:48), flow rate 1 mL/min, wavelength 365 nm. - Sample preparation: ethanol 75%, hydrochloride acid 40% hydrolysis for 2 h.
3	Lin et al 2013⁴⁴	5 golden camellia species	1. Caffeine 2. Catechins 3. Amino acids	The leaves of C. murauchii had the lowest caffeine content but the highest total catechin and total polyphenol content among the five species. Interestingly, gallocatechin was not detected in any of the five surveyed species. Regarding amino acid composition, the highest total amino acid content was observed in C. euphlebia. Furthermore, the unique compound theanine, an amino acid found in Camellia species, was only found in the leaves of C. nitidissima var japonica and C. murauchii.
4	Yang et al 2016⁴⁵	C. chrysantha (Flower)	Fingerprint	- Conditions: C₁₈ column (250 × 4.6 mm; 5.0 μm), acetonitrile (A) and 0.5% acetic acid (B), gradient elution program (0−16 min: 5→10% A; 16-45 min: 10→23% A; 45-55 min: 23→38% A; 55-90 min: 38→95% A), column temperature 35 °C, flow rate 1 mL/min, wavelength 270 nm. - Results: The chromatogram showed 34 peaks that can be used for evaluating the quality of the herbal material.
5	He et al 2019⁴⁶	C. nitidissima (Leaf)	Kaempferol	Through orthogonal experiments, an optimized sample processing procedure for kaempferol was proposed with the following conditions: extraction temperature of 80 °C, extraction time of 100 min, and extraction solvent of methanol-0.4% phosphoric acid (1:4). The kaempferol content in the test sample processed using the optimized procedure was recorded as 1.8 mg/g.
6	Yu et al 2019⁴⁷	C. nitidissima (Flower)	Fingerprint	- Conditions: C₁₈ column (250 × 4.6 mm; 5.0 μm), acetonitrile (A) and 0.1% phosphoric acid (B), gradient elution program (0-6 min: 4→18% A; 6-10.8 min: 18→30% A; 10.8-13 min: 30→40% A; 13-15 min: 40→70% A; 15-15.1 min: 70→4% A; 15.1-18 min: 4% A), column temperature 30 °C, flow rate 1 mL/min, wavelength 254 nm. - Results: The analysis procedure identified 10 peaks on the chromatogram, out of which 5 peaks were determined to be 3'-methyl ellagic acid-4'-glucoside, ellagic acid, okicamelliaside, 3'-methyl ellagic acid, and 3,4-O,O-methine-ellagic acid.
7	Chen et al 2020⁴⁸	C. euphlebia (Leaf)	Kaempferol	- Conditions: C₁₈ column (250 × 4.6 mm; 5.0 μm), methanol – phosphoric acid 0.2% (32:68), flow rate 1 mL/min, injection volume 20 μL, wavelength 360 nm. - Sample preparation: methanol – hydrochloride acid 25% (4:1) for 100 min. - Results: The content of kaempferol has been determined to be 0.381 mg/g.
8	Yan et al 2020⁴⁹	C. chrysantha (Leaf)	1. Rutin 2. Quercetin 3. Luteolin 4. Kaempferol	- Conditions: C₁₈ column (250 × 4.6 mm; 5.0 μm), methanol (A) and 0.1% acetic acid (B), gradient elution program (0-20 min: 15→35% A; 20-40 min: 35→60% A), column temperature 23 °C, flow rate 1 mL/min, injection volume 10 μL, wavelength 370 nm.
9	Mo et al 2020¹⁹	C. chrysantha (Leaf, Flower)	1. Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside 2. Rutin 3. Vitexin 4. Quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside 5. Quercetin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside 6. Taxifoline 7. Kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside 8. Dihydrokaempferol 9. Quercetin 10. Luteolin 11. Narigenin 12. Kaempferol	- Conditions: C₁₈ column (150 × 2.1 mm; 3.0 μm), acetonitrile (A) and 0.2% acetic acid (B), gradient elution program (0–5 min: 80% B; 5–15 min: 80→60% B; 15–20 min: 60→40% B; 20–20.2 min: 40→80% B; 20.2–24 min: 80% B, column temperature 30 °C, flow rate 1 mL/min, injection volume 10 μL, wavelength 320 nm.
Spectrometric method
1	Zhou et al 2010⁵⁰	C. chrysantha (Leaf)	Total flavonoid	The test sample was reacted with aluminum nitrate and sodium nitrite in an alkaline environment, and the absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 500 nm. The results was quantified using a rutin standard curve. The quantitative analysis indicated that the total flavonoid content in C. chrysantha leaves was 3.7 mg RE/g.
2	Niu et al 2014⁵¹	C. chrysantha (Flower, leaf, flower bud, and fruit peel)	Total polysaccharide	The test samples were reacted with the phenol-sulfuric acid reagent, and the absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 490 nm. The results were quantified using a glucose standard curve. The quantitative analysis determined the polysaccharide content in the flowers, leaves, flower buds, and fruit peels to be 32.88 g glucose/kg, 29.48 g glucose/kg, 35.89 g glucose/kg, and 30.02 g glucose/kg, respectively.
3	Tang et al 2014⁵²	C. chrysantha (Leaf)	Total saponin	The optimized quantification procedure included the following sample processing conditions: a sample volume of 0.1 mL, a volume of 5% vanillin in 0.35 mL acetic acid, a volume of 1 mL perchloric acid, a reaction temperature of 80 °C, a reaction time of 20 min, and an absorbance measurement wavelength of 540 nm.
4	Chai et al 2016⁴⁰	C. pubietala (Young and old leaf)	Total sugar Total fatty acid Total fiber Total ash Total protein Total flavonoid Total polyphenol Total saponin Caffeine Total polysaccharide Mineral elements	The evaluation results showed that the old leaves had significantly higher levels of total sugars, fats, fiber, and ash compared to the young leaves. On the other hand, the young leaves had higher levels of proteins, total flavonoids, total polyphenols, total saponins, caffeine, and polysaccharides compared to the old leaves. Additionally, the young leaves also exhibited higher levels of total amino acids, glutamate, aspartate, leucine, lysine, the ratio of essential amino acids to total amino acids, and the ratio of non-essential amino acids to total amino acids compared to the old leaves. Lastly, the mineral analysis revealed that the old leaves had significantly higher levels of calcium, manganese, iron, zinc, selenium, and molybdenum compared to the young leaves.

Conclusion

Nearly 380 phytochemical compounds have been reported from the leaves, flowers, fruits, and roots of several golden camellia species including Camellia chrysantha, Camellia euphlebia, Camellia hakodae, Camellia impressinervis, Camellia murauchii, Camellia buigiamapensis, and Camellia chuangtsoensis. Additionally, studies aimed at developing analytical methods for quantifying these compounds in golden camellia species have also been conducted. Our overview provides a comprehensive look at the chemical constituents of these golden camellia species as reported in reputable databases, thereby contributing scientific evidence to support the valuable medicinal properties of this group of plants.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Minh-Nhut Truong

Tram-Anh Mai-Pham

Lac-Thuy Nguyen-Huu

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