Football coaches’ perceptions of decision-making: A multi-method study

Abstract

This study aimed to explore the football coaches’ perceptions of decision-making, as well as to identify the phases in which players demonstrate the greatest strengths and weaknesses, and to assess their overall decision-making level. This study employed a multi-method, integrative, non-experimental, descriptive, cross-sectional design. A phenomenographic interpretative approach was followed, a quantitative and qualitative analysis was conducted. The study population comprised 1174 Colombian football coaches who enrolled in regularization courses to obtain official coaching licenses, the sample size was 233 coaches. The data were collected through a semi-structured survey. The characteristics of the participants were: age M = 42.71 years (SD = 11.11), experience as former players M = 15.73 years (SD = 10.34), coaching experience M = 16.41 years (SD = 8.87). The coaches’ conceptions of decision-making in football revealed three key trends: 1) most frequently identified categories, which included choice, process, ability, problem-solving, and technique; 2) less frequently identified categories, which included game understanding, game situations, efficiency, and speed; and 3) indeterminate category, which included some responses that did not fit into the established categories. In addition, the coaches perceived technical skills to be the greatest strength of players while perceiving game comprehension and interpretation to be their greatest weakness. Overall, the coaches rated the decision-making abilities of players as moderate.

Decision-making is closely linked to other key concepts recognized by sports theorists and researchers. The primary components of decision-making include choice, cognitive and deliberate processing, ability, problem-solving, and technique. Additional factors such as game understanding, situational awareness, efficiency, and speed also play a role.

Introduction

In team sports, playing well requires selecting the right action at the right time and executing it efficiently and consistently. ¹ Decision-making (DM) is the ability to perceive essential information from the playing environment, correctly interpret the information, and then select the appropriate response. ² DM in sports involves selecting an action while simultaneously evaluating alternative options. ³ It requires choosing the most effective course of action from two or more possibilities based on the specific context. ⁴ As a cognitive process, DM is essential for both individual and team-based in-game actions. ⁵ Every voluntary action involves a combination of motor skills and DM, as technical execution is inherently linked to tactical reasoning. ¹ This relationship between tactics and technique forms a unity where each element influences and conditions the other. ⁶ Perception and action should be viewed as an interdependent cycle, often referred to as ‘perception-action coupling’. ⁷ In sports, DM integrates both perceptual-cognitive and perceptual-motor skills. ⁸ By the ages of 9–10 years, children develop the necessary cognitive abilities to understand tactical principles and apply corresponding technical-tactical actions in football. ⁶ Athletes with stronger tactical skills tend to have greater potential for achieving high-level performance than those with a weaker tactical understanding. ⁹

The DM process among athletes is complex and influenced by both internal and external factors, including self-confidence, self-efficacy, motivation, emotions, training level, sport specialization, competition structure, opponents, playing conditions, and environmental factors. ¹⁰ The surrounding environment provides essential information that athletes rely on to make decisions. ³ DM should be understood within the performer-environment relationship, where decisions emerge from an athlete's interaction with contextual constraints while working toward specific functional goals. ¹¹ A player's ability to execute actions and make decisions in football depends on both individual capabilities and contextual conditions. ¹²

As football is played in a constantly changing environment under time pressure, many decisions occur unconsciously, with emotions driving behavior. ¹³ In these contexts, players primarily rely on intuitive, fast-thinking processes (System 1) rather than deliberate, rational analysis (System 2). ¹⁴ From an information-processing perspective, ¹⁵ suggested that players make decisions by selecting pre-learned responses stored in memory. Knowledge and working memory play a decisive role in processing information and executing high-quality tactical decisions.^16,17 identified three primary approaches for understanding DM in sports: 1) the information processing approach-based on theories of mental representation; this approach views DM as a process of selecting and executing stored responses; 2) the ecological dynamics approach, which focuses on direct interactions with the environment and how athletes adapt to situational constraints; and 3) the naturalistic approach, which examines human performance in real-world, high-pressure scenarios, emphasizing pattern recognition as the foundation of DM. ⁴ These approaches present overlapping theoretical concepts and terminology, which can lead to confusion when designing coaching strategies and training methodologies. ¹⁷ However, despite their differences, the information processing and ecological dynamics approaches can coexist in explaining judgment and DM in sports. ¹⁸

If training theory is to remain relevant and aid coaches then it needs to engage with these problems and the realities coaches face. ¹⁹ Integrating qualitative and quantitative research methods offers valuable insights into cognition and DM among coaches and athletes. ²⁰ Research should explore how coaches make decisions and reflect on their practices, as well as how their DM is influenced by different competitive contexts. ²¹ The origins of coaches’ conceptions of DM remain largely unexplored. ²² Although research on DM and anticipation in sports has made important advances, this field of study is relatively recent and requires further development among various sports professionals, including athletes, coaches, and referees. ²³ It's important to know which variables and contextual conditions influence anticipation and DM in football players, female footballers’ anticipation of opponents’ offensive actions is impaired under conditions of fatigue and increases in ambient temperature. ²⁴ However, more high-quality research is needed to advance the theoretical understanding of DM in sports, the perspectives of athletes, coaches, managers, and fans, which could provide valuable insights for shaping future research over the next years, are often understudied. ³ Research on how coaches behave, conceptualize, and implement DM strategies during competition is limited. ²⁵ Studies should focus on the specific interactions between the game, player, and coach to examine how coaches perceive and interpret game demands and how these insights influence players’ DM processes. ²⁶ Researchers should also explore the use of explanatory interviews with both coaches and players to enhance the development of DM. ²⁷ Furthermore, ecological and experimental research designs should be integrated to provide a more comprehensive understanding of DM. ¹⁵

Varied approaches create opportunities for flexibility in data collection, and it can create challenges in comparing and interpreting findings across different studies. ²⁸ Understanding how coaches experience and conceptualize DM could provide critical insights for improving training interventions and player development. ²² Researchers should prioritize the creation of tools and methodologies that effectively capture coaches’ cognitive reasoning, training strategies, and learning processes. ²⁹ Football coaches’ knowledge and behavior in training are shaped by their historical and social experiences, beliefs, ideologies, and professional education. ³⁰ Embodied decisions are at the forefront of multidisciplinary investigations across psychology, neuroscience, and sports science. ³¹ Research with a multi-method and mixed-methods approach offers important alternatives to deepen the understanding of football players’ DM processes when programs for psychological pressure training and its effects on DM are implemented, ³² as well as for understanding the practical activities and sequences during training sessions conducted by football coaches’ and identifying ‘how’ and ‘why’ they structure their training practices. ³³

Coaches play a crucial role in planning, scheduling, periodizing, monitoring, and evaluating players’ DM abilities. They must progressively teach players which elements are essential in different game situations, helping them develop selective attention ³⁴ and tactical creativity, which are key factors for success in elite football competitions. ³⁵ It is necessary to develop more uniform methodologies and similar instruments with the integration of different stakeholders and the creation of specific programs by universities and national football associations. ³⁶ To achieve this, coaches must receive high-quality training and develop conceptual clarity regarding DM. Given the theoretical and methodological diversity in how coaches understand and implement DM strategies, this study aimed to achieve the following goals:

To identify football coaches’ conceptions of DM.

To determine the strongest and weakest phases of footballers’ DM according to the perceptions of football coaches.

To know the level of DM of Colombian footballers according to the perceptions of football coaches.

Materials and methods

Philosophical perspectives and design

This study employed a multi-method, integrative approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the research problem, in which different methods are integrated throughout all phases of the process, from the problem formulation, data collection, and analysis and interpretation of it. ³⁷ The quantitative component utilized a non-experimental, descriptive, cross-sectional design to analyse DM among football coaches. The qualitative component was based on an interpretative approach, specifically phenomenography, which examines how individuals-in this case, football coaches-perceive, conceptualize, describe, and interpret a particular phenomenon from different perspectives, therefore, rather than describing the phenomenon under study itself, what phenomenography seeks is to indicate how the experiences or conceptions of the phenomenon show discrepancies or similarities among the subjects investigated, that is, a second order perspective. ³⁸ In sports, phenomenography is particularly relevant in educational and training contexts as it helps uncover the various ways individuals understand key concepts that shape their professional development. ²²

This study analysed the conceptions of DM among a group of football coaches who participated in training courses to obtain coaching licenses from the Colombian Football Federation and the University of Antioquia. The football coach regularization courses in Colombia were held on a one-off basis between 2019 and 2020 and were those with which the implementation of the CONMEBOL coaching license programe began. These courses were open to football coaches who already had academic training in sports science and related fields, as well as coaches who had experience as former footballers and coaches. These courses varied in length from 24 to 90 h. Once these regularization courses were completed, the CONMEBOL coaching license programe courses were implemented with the following duration: License C = 100 h, License B = 140 h, License A = 240 h, and License PRO = 360 h, including theoretical content, practical sessions, workshops, presentations, and assessments. Passing these courses allowed coaches to obtain their respective licenses and consequently to work as coaches in federated football at each of the levels described.

Population and sample

The study population comprised 1174 Colombian football coaches who enrolled in regularization courses to obtain official coaching licenses. Since this study was of an integrative multi-method type, in the selection of the sample the quantitative component was prioritized, and within the questionnaire used, open-ended questions were included which were later analyzed qualitatively, for this reason, a simple probabilistic random sampling method was employed, based on the following criteria: 95% confidence level, 5% margin of error, and prevalence (p) of 50%. Using the formula proposed by, ³⁹ a sample size of 290 coaches was initially determined. Additionally, an adjustment formula was applied ⁴⁰ as follows: (ñ = n/(1 + (n/N)), where n = initial sample size and N = total population. This adjustment resulted in a minimum required sample size (ñ) of 233 coaches, which was successfully met.

A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to the participants, and both quantitative and qualitative data related to their DM conceptions, experiences, and coaching methodologies were collected.

Equation 1. Formula for sample calculation ³⁹

n = (N*Z_∝^2*p*q)/(e^(2)*(N-1)+Z_∝^2*p*q)

Criteria for inclusion and exclusion of the participants

The participants were football coaches enrolled in regularization courses to obtain a football coaching license in Colombia. All coaches were required to voluntarily agree to participate after reviewing and signing the informed consent form. Those who did not complete the questionnaire were excluded from the study.

Characteristics of the population

This study gathered insights from 233 Colombian football coaches (both professional and amateur) regarding their conceptions of DM. The average age of the participants was 42.71 years (SD = 11.11). Their experience as former football players averaged 15.73 years (SD = 10.34), while their experience as coaches averaged 16.41 years (SD = 8.87). The vast majority (98.3%) were male, and nearly all (99.6%) were Colombian nationals. The sample represented coaches from 27 of Colombia's 32 departments (84.3%), ensuring broad national coverage. In terms of their socioeconomic background, 33.5% of the participants identified as lower class, 58.8% as middle class, and 7.7% as upper class.

The level of professional performance among the coaches was categorized according to the CONMEBOL Football Coaches Licensing Convention, ⁴¹ which establishes licensing requirements based on the age groups they train. Grassroots football coaches (C license) work with children aged 6–12 years, while formative football coaches (B license) train players aged 13–15 years. High-performance football coaches (A license) are responsible for athletes aged 16–20 years, and professional football coaches require a PRO license to train professional players. Table 1 summarizes the distribution of the participants across these licensing categories.

Table 1.

Performance levels of Colombian football coaches.

Performance level	Values	n	%
Grassroots Football	No	69	29.6
(6 to 12 years old-C license)	Yes	164	70.4
Formative Football	No	41	17.6
(13 to 15 years old-B license)	Yes	192	82.4
High Performance Football	No	50	21.5
(16 to 20 years old-A license)	Yes	183	78.5
Professional Football	No	171	73.4
(Professional players-PRO license)	Yes	62	26.6

Procedure

The questionnaire was developed and reviewed by five experts in DM in sports, who have academic training in areas related to sports science, and one of them has training in neuropsychology. Additionally, all have postgraduate education at master's and doctoral levels, and all have experience as athletes in sports with high cognitive demand and DM (football, volleyball, basketball). Moreover, all are university professors in areas related to sports and physical activity with more than 15 years of teaching experience. Once the questionnaire was structured, it was sent to five certified football coaches with an A coaching license for their analysis, and based on their comments and suggestions, the final set of questions was selected for inclusion. Once completed, the questionnaire was distributed via Google Forms to the entire target population. A two-month period was allocated for the data collection, during which responses were gathered from 233 participants.

Data collection

A semi-structured survey was conducted for the data collection, administered virtually through Google Forms. The questionnaire included both closed-ended and open-ended questions, allowing for both quantitative and qualitative analysis. After the participants completed the survey, their responses were stored in an Excel file. The researchers then verified that all questions were fully answered before proceeding with the data analysis. The quantitative data from the closed-ended questions were exported to SPSS v29, where absolute and relative frequencies were calculated and presented in frequency tables. The qualitative data, including the responses to the open-ended questions, were processed using Atlas.Ti v9, following the methodology for text analysis. ⁴² Based on the voices of the coaches, their testimonies were organized and categorized according to existing theory on DM in the sports context, therefore, an axial coding process was carry out, ⁴³ and in general terms the categories assigned were of an a priori or deductive nature. ⁴⁴

Trustworthiness

In terms of the rigor criteria the following strategies were adopted: for credibility, triangulation of stakeholders was used, that is, different types (levels) of coaches were considered, comparisons with various theories were also conducted. For transferability, a dense transcription and description of the participant's testimonies were carried out in terms of the context and characteristics of the participants, which involved data collection from a large sample that could be inferred to the population from which it was drawn. In terms of reliability, a detailed and clearly documented record of the entire process was kept, which ensured its internal consistency. Finally, for confirmability, the inter-researcher analysis strategy was used, in which each researcher independently analyzed the data, followed by a plenary session with all the researchers (five), the coherence of each testimony and the category to which it was assigned was analyzed, and disagreements were resolved through discussion and theoretical argumentation. ⁴⁵

Data analysis and interpretation

For nominal and ordinal variables derived from the closed-ended questions, the mode was used for interpretation, with the results displayed in frequency tables. For the qualitative data, an axial coding process was applied. ⁴³ The 233 responses from the coaches regarding their understanding of DM in football were systematically analyzed. The responses were categorized into nine inductive themes defining DM in football. To ensure accuracy and consistency, the research team conducted joint work sessions to review category assignments, carefully deliberating to ensure that each response was placed in the most relevant category. During the analysis, five categories emerged as the most predominant based on rooting and density: choice, process, capacity, problem-solving, and technique. Additionally, four less frequently mentioned categories were identified, but they still contributed to defining DM in football: understanding of the game, playing situation, efficiency, and speed. An emerging category, labeled ‘indeterminate’, was also identified. This category included testimonies about DM from the coaches; however, further analysis revealed that these responses did not align with the established conceptual framework of DM in football. The identified categories are visually represented in a semantic network, illustrating their relationship with the broader macro-category of DM (Figure 1). Furthermore, to examine the potential relationships between these categories, a co-occurrence analysis was conducted and visualized using a Sankey diagram in Atlas.ti v9 (Figure 2).

Figure 1.

Semantic network of the football coaches’ conceptions of decision-making.

Figure 2.

Co-occurrence analysis of problem-solving as a defining aspect of decision-making and its relationship with other categories.

Ethical procedures

This study adhered to the ethical principles for human research outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. ⁴⁶ The ethical standards established in Resolution 8430 by the Colombian Ministry of Health, ⁴⁷ which classifies this type of research as ‘risk-free’-were strictly followed. The study received approval from the institutional ethics committee (ACEI 09-2021).

Results

Football coaches’ conceptions of decision-making

The testimonies provided by the coaches were analyzed and represented in a semantic network (Figure 1), revealing three main trends. The first trend encompassed the dominant conceptions of DM, including choice, process, ability, problem-solving, and technique, which were the most frequently mentioned and widely agreed upon. ⁴⁸ The second trend highlighted conceptions such as an understanding of the game, playing situation, efficiency, and speed, which, although mentioned less frequently, still contribute to an understanding of DM. ⁴⁸ Finally, a notable emerging category was identified, which was labeled ‘indeterminate’. This category included testimonies that referenced DM but did not align with any clear conceptual framework.

Decision-making conceived as a choice

Among the dominant conceptions of DM, the idea that it primarily involves choice stood out. The football coaches largely perceived DM as the ability to determine and select an option from multiple possibilities based on experience, context, and the player's individual capacity. This perspective reflects the common understanding that DM occurs when an athlete, faced with a specific game situation, must choose the most appropriate response. One coach articulated this view clearly: ‘DM in football is the process of choosing between several options that arise during the game and resolving them as soon as possible and in the best way’ (Respondent 85).

Several complementary components reinforced the notion of DM as a matter of choice. One of these highlighted DM as a crucial element in problem-solving on the field: ‘The way in which the football player perceives different options to solve a problem in the game and chooses the most appropriate solution, executing it in the best way (perception, decision, and execution)’ (Respondent 115). Additionally, some coaches emphasized the need for conscious awareness when making choices:

It is the ability that the individual has to know how to consciously choose the most appropriate option for a particular situation and execute it as best as possible, making use of his intellectual, playful, motor, and creative experience to execute a specific gesture or movement. (Respondent 134)

Effectiveness is another key aspect within the choice-based conception of DM. The coaches stressed that every decision made in the game should be optimal and well-timed: ‘To choose the moment and place at the ideal time to be effective in his decision’ (Respondent 229). This reinforces the idea that DM, understood in terms of choice, is one of the most critical aspects of football performance.

Decision-making conceived as a process

Another prevalent and widely accepted conception of DM is that it functions as a process. This perspective emphasizes a series of steps, phases, and sequences that a player undergoes when selecting an option. One coach described this clearly: ‘The ability that the athlete has to first perceive game situations, then interpret them, and finally, execute the best option’ (Respondent 225).

Many coaches framed DM as a cognitive process, prioritizing mental faculties such as perception and thinking: ‘Thinking and rapid response to a game action’ (Respondent 10).

One of the most popular and accepted conceptions among sports coaches, specifically football coaches, is that DM is both a cognitive and deliberate process (Figure 1). The cognitive process involves sensory and cognitive mechanisms during observable player behaviors in a game. Simultaneously, motor processes play a role, as illustrated in this testimony: ‘Mental and motor processes that involve observing, analyzing, and executing a movement in relation to the environment-the timing of an action in the game’ (Respondent 58).

The process of DM is also influenced by players’ sensations, emotions, and overall mood

It is the process by which players perceive an action, interpret it, look for the best response to make the decision, and, finally, perform the technical execution. The process is subject to the mood and emotional state of athletes. (Respondent 96)

As a deliberate process, DM further implies that players engage in it voluntarily and consciously: ‘Voluntary action to take advantage of a certain moment either in defense or in attack’ (Respondent 175). Finally, the coaches acknowledge the complexity of DM due to the fast-paced and high-pressure nature of football, where decisions must be made within fractions of a second. This perspective is captured in the following statement:

Defining it is difficult, but roughly speaking, it is part of a process in which the player perceives, analyses, makes the decision, and executes it in a matter of milliseconds in response to a situation that arises during the game. (Respondent 57)

Decision-making conceived as an ability

The football coaches frequently described DM as an ability-an essential quality that enables a player to perform effectively on the field. Many testimonies emphasized DM as a skill that allows athletes to choose the best option in a given situation. One coach described it as ‘the ability that the athlete has to perceive, decide, and execute the most appropriate game option taking into consideration his possibilities, those of his teammates, and those of his opponents’ (Respondent 29). The capacity to make decisions is also linked to the game's context. The coaches highlighted the importance of situational awareness when making decisions, as expressed in the following testimony: ‘Depending on the context of the game, it is the player's ability to make the best decision at a given moment’ (Respondent 74). Beyond simply being an ability, some coaches associated DM with multiple interconnected elements, including speed, efficiency, and the game situation. This multidimensional perspective is reflected in the statement: ‘It is the player's ability to give an immediate and effective response to a game situation presented to him’ (Respondent 106).

Decision-making conceived as problem-solving

In the context of football, DM is often perceived as a problem-solving mechanism. Players encounter complex in-game situations that require quick and efficient resolutions. One coach highlighted the significance of DM: ‘Very important, as it helps to solve complex problems within the game’ (Respondent 176). The link between DM and problem-solving was further reinforced by its connection to key elements such as ability and choice. For instance, DM was described in another testimony as follows: ‘The ability that the player has to choose the best option to solve a problem situation within the game in its multiple variables’ (Respondent 30).

This implies that DM involves not only selecting an option but doing so in a way that effectively resolves tactical and strategic challenges. Another testimony supported this idea: ‘The ability to effectively solve a tactical problem present within the game’ (Respondent 7). Time emerged as a crucial factor in DM when viewed as problem-solving. The speed at which decisions are made directly impacts their effectiveness, as noted in the following statement: ‘Solve a game action correctly and in the shortest time’ (Respondent 87).

From this perspective, DM as problem-solving is an intricate process that involves a combination of multiple capabilities, including tactical awareness, efficiency, and time management. The best decisions not only contribute to achieving a specific objective but also must be executed swiftly to maintain the game's competitive flow (Figure 2). This understanding of DM underscores its complexity, demonstrating that effective decision-making requires players to integrate various cognitive and motor skills while considering the ever-changing dynamics of the game.

Decision-making and its relationship with technique

Some conceptions of DM were closely related to technique, understood as ‘the ability of the player to perform an action or task adequately’ (Respondent 165). Additionally, DM was often viewed as a reaction to a stimulus, as expressed in the statement: ‘Action–reaction to a stimulus’ (Respondent 41). Furthermore, other perspectives described DM as both a mental and physical process closely tied to efficiency in time management: ‘It is the execution of actions both mentally and physically in the shortest possible time’ (Respondent 204). Some coaches also described DM as a multi-step process that culminates in the execution of a technical action. This perspective highlights the integration of perception, interpretation, and execution:

It is the process by which football players perceive an action, then interpret it and look for the best response to make the decision and, finally, perform the technical execution. The process is subject to the mood and emotional state of the athletes (Respondent 96).

Although less frequently mentioned, some additional conceptions of DM were identified. One of these was the idea of DM as an understanding of the game, reflected in the statement: ‘Interpretation that each player gives to the game’ (Respondent 51). Another category related DM to game situations, with one coach defining it as follows: ‘Interpretation of a player to solve a game situation in the shortest time’ (Respondent 50).

Similarly, some coaches associated DM with effectiveness: ‘The ability to respond efficiently and effectively to various options within a game situation’ (Respondent 23). The concept of speed also emerged as a factor in DM: ‘I define it as the ability to solve game situations in the shortest possible time’ (Respondent 177).

Finally, a distinct category also emerged, which was labeled ‘indeterminate’ (Figure 1). Although in this category no concepts directly related to DM in football were evidenced, some aspects that denote it could be established. In this regard, a group of coaches assigned certain characteristics, among which the following stand out: it provides advantages over opponents, it relates to individual initiative, it must be timely and concrete. Likewise, another group of coaches mentioned aspects that condition DM, highlighting the experience of the players, their level of sports training, the environment in which they perform, and emotions. Additionally, although to a lesser extent, another group of coaches referred to DM as a tool, strategy or procedure applied to achieve something. On the other hand, this category also comprised generic, ambiguous, and imprecise testimonies that did not clearly define DM in football. Following are some examples of such statements:

‘Fundamental factor for sporting achievement’ (Respondent 220).

‘At present, it is at the same level as talent’ (Respondent 3).

‘It is one of the most important parts of football because it helps both coaches and players to achieve their objectives’ (Respondent 38).

Football coaches’ conceptions of decision-making according to the level of license

When stablishing the differences among football coaches regarding their conceptions about DM according to the level of license they hold, it was found that all conceptual categories, both hegemonic (choice, process, ability, problem solving, technique), and peripheral (speed, game understanding, game situation, effectiveness), as well as ‘indeterminate’, were mentioned in their testimonies, that is, they were present at all levels of training (Figure 3). The categories choice and problem solving emerged as the most mentioned at all levels of coaches. Furthermore, among the peripheral categories the ones that showed the highest density were speed and effectiveness, standing out as the most mentioned by A-license and C-license coaches, respectively. For its part, the ‘indeterminate’ category emerged with greater density among coaches with A and B licenses.

Figure 3.

Co-occurrence between the conceptual categories that define decision-making and the level of the coaching license.

Football coaches’ perception of strengths and weaknesses in decision-making

The football coaches identified various phases of DM, each with different levels of perceived strength and weakness among players (Table 2). According to them, the execution phase, closely linked to technical ability, is the strongest aspect of Colombian football players’ DM. However, the greatest weakness lies in the understanding and interpretation phase, indicating a gap in players’ ability to analyze and respond effectively to game situations.

Table 2.

Football coaches’ perceptions of decision-making strengths and weaknesses in Colombian football players.

Phase	Values	n	%
Phase of greatest strength in DM among Colombian football players	Understanding and interpretation	68	29.2
	Decision	24	10.3
	Execution (technical)	101	43.3
	Perception	40	17.2
Phase of greatest weakness in DM among Colombian football players	Understanding and interpretation	127	54.5
	Decision	49	21.0
	Execution (technical)	27	11.6
	Perception	30	12.9

Overall decision-making level of Colombian football players

A high percentage of coaches rated the overall DM ability of Colombian football players as regular (Table 3). This suggests that significant improvements are needed to develop DM skills, particularly in strengthening each phase of the process. To enhance player performance, a comprehensive approach to training in DM is required, including evaluation, planning, periodization, execution, monitoring, and control.

Table 3.

Coaches’ assessment of the level of decision-making among Colombian football players.

Decision-making level	n	%
Very poor	1	0.4
Deficient	26	11.2
Regular	141	60.5
Good	64	27.5
Excellent	1	0.4
Total	233	100

Discussion

This research aimed to identify football coaches’ conceptions of DM, as well as to determine the strongest and weakest phases of footballers’ DM according to the perceptions of football coaches, and to know the level of DM of Colombian footballers according to the perceptions of football coaches. In academic and scientific literature, a strong consensus exists regarding the conceptualization of DM, particularly over the last years. However, while theorists have developed clear definitions and frameworks, this knowledge does not always translate effectively into practical applications for coaches. Research findings are often not communicated in ways that provide clear, actionable guidance for football coaches, coach educators, or trainers. ⁴⁹ Professional training and certification of coaches are crucial for improving their knowledge and methodology, which in turn can enhance player development and the overall evolution of football. Therefore, academic and scientific insights related to DM must be efficiently and accurately transferred to key stakeholders-particularly coaches-so that they can refine their conceptions, methodologies, and training programs. Ensuring that coaches have access to well-structured and applicable knowledge will ultimately elevate the level of DM in football.

Football coaches’ conceptions of decision-making

The development and consolidation of a concept require time for its proposition, reflection, discussion, practical application, and eventual acceptance by stakeholders. In football, DM is intertwined with various categories and theoretical constructs proposed by sports scientists and theorists, which provide it with meaning and context. Among these, the category of ‘choice’ has been widely recognized in numerous studies. Voluntary actions by definition involve choice, which can sometimes be simple, based on a context of deciding yes or no, and in other cases, the decisions are more complex, requiring a choice among different courses of the action. ¹ Furthermore, the study of DM in sport involves selecting among affordances, however once an affordance is perceived, its selection embodies an action, i.e., the action mode is chosen in the perception of an affordance. ⁵⁰ Likewise, the category ‘choice’ is aligned with recent statements indicating that most current work in psychology and neuroscience focuses on the choice between currently available affordances, but cognition also refers to the choice between actions and affordances that are not yet present, in order to achieve future goals. ³¹

The conceptual category ‘process’ has been mentioned by other researchers. The development of the process of affective DM in adolescent football players is important, ⁵ likewise, DM process is a cognitive and affective phenomenon, which is influenced by the athlete's emotional state. ¹⁰ Furthermore, it was concluded that game situations in Rugby Union impact players’ DM processes. ¹⁵ Furthermore, the category process has been linked considering that generic domain cognitive processes, that is, executive functions, are relevant for domain-specific DM such as in football, ⁵¹ additionally knowledge and working memory are determining to process information and make quality tactical decisions. ¹⁶ Likewise, the category ‘process’ has been highlighted due to its relevance and importance in information processing for DM, it is also suggested that the joint evaluation of the three processes (visual search strategies, cognitive effort, processing strategies), as well as the response time, should be conducted. ⁵²

The category ‘ability’ has been strongly associated with DM. Due to the importance of DM for game performance, researchers have explored several methods to develop this ability in players. ²² Similarly, in team games situations the ability to make fast and accurate decisions is crucial to performance, as such, effective DM characterized by the consistent and efficient ability to choose the right course of action at the right moment, is a key component of match performance in team sports. ²⁷ Likewise, DM ability in players during match-play is mostly acquired through practice activities with the same underlying structure as a competition. ³³ Additionally, the ability category has been highlighted and linked by high-level football players when mentioning that their DM is influenced by their skills to act on available options and create the right moment to take advantage of their opponents, ⁵³ therefore, training should be organized in order to stimulate players’ DM in a quick and intuitive manner increasing the player's ability to process information and make correct decisions. ⁵²

The category ‘problem-solving’ has been highlighted as a core element related to DM. In every playing position and tactical movement of football players, there are complex underlying processes that involve multiple aspects of the players’ cognition, which support creative and intelligent DM to solve the problems posed by football. ⁵⁴ Participants stressed the value of concise communication aimed at solving tactical problems and proper psychological management to improve performance. ⁵⁵ Additionally, DM is often linked to the ‘technique’ conceptual category. The development of any action will depend on the relationship between a parameter of movement (strenght) and a relevant property of the perceptual flow (information). ⁷ Likewise, perception is of affordances, and action, as an expression of cognition, is the realization of an affordance and emerges under constraints. ⁵⁰ Young football players improve their performance in the game (DM and execution) before they acquire the specific dominance knowledge, at the same time, they perform better in selecting responses than in execution. ⁶ These categories, frequently cited by the coaches in their testimonies, reflect a conceptual alignment with existing literature and the theoretical advancements in the field. ⁴⁸

Other relevant but less predominant categories include ‘game comprehension and understanding’. The understanding and comprehension of football goes through a dichotomy of paradigms, in which one perspective sees it as a separation of its dimension (tactical, technical, physical, psychological), and the other sees it as a whole and complex phenomenon. ⁵⁴ It was concluded by ⁵⁶ that midfielders displayed greater ability to read the game and make quicker decisions when compared to defenders and forwards in offensive and defensive situations near and distant from the ball. Similarly, ‘game situation’ category has been linked to DM. For development players, it is essential to know which technical-tactical element to choose in each game situation (whether to pass to a teammate or dribble the ball to advance depending on the positioning of the opponents), how to do it, and when it should be done. ³⁴ It was likewise concluded that a team level, a group's action is coordinated by reference to a shared mental model and collective attunement to the shared affordances offered by the game situation. ¹⁷ Furthermore, the concept of ‘effectiveness’ in choosing the best option is closely tied to DM. In Football, an attribute of high-performance players is the ability to be novel and surprising in their DM processes under time constraints, thereby allowing them to be more effective in unique performance situations and make it more difficult for opponents to predict what they do next, ⁵⁷ particularly in relation to procedural tactical knowledge, it was conclude that the game context of semi-professional and amateur football players differs mainly in the efficiency of the tactical behaviors that take place out of the game center. ⁵⁸ Given the nature of high-performance sports, many in-game decisions must be made under time constraints, which means that DM is significantly influenced and restricted by time pressure. In that sense, the conceptual category ‘speed’ has been linked and highlighted by several authors. Decision makers must rely on their experience and ability to quickly recognize the causal dynamics of situation as a way of generating effective options and evaluating them. ⁴ It was conclude that professional football players make around 56% more decisions than academy players, since matches at both levels have the same duration, it means that professionals need to make more decisions per minute, thus implicating in quicker game reading and DM. ⁵⁹ While these categories were also mentioned by the coaches, they were less prevalent or considered peripheral. ⁴⁸

Importantly, some testimonies revealed a degree of conceptual indeterminacy, where certain responses did not align with the established theoretical understanding of DM. These misconceptions suggest gaps in knowledge that must be addressed to enhance the conceptual accuracy of DM in football coaching, which supports the evidence that there is still confusion and controversy in the existing research on DM and how it can be improved. ²² Further research is needed to delve deeper into this topic.

Limitations

This is the first questionnaire used to identify Colombian football coaches’ conceptions of DM. In order to improve the knowledge that coaches have on this topic, more studies should be conducted and therefore, some limitations of the present study must be addressed. Although the sample size used in this research was adequate and representative of Colombian football coaches, the findings should not be generalized as not cross-cultural variability was conducted, they should therefore be interpreted with caution. Furthermore, it is necessary to recognize the scope and limitations of the concepts and knowledge provided by the coaches who participated in this research, most of which are framed withing practical conceptions and knowledge, and in some cases are aligned with current theoretical and scientific knowledge, while in other cases they are not.

Although the questionnaire questions allowed us to gain valuable insights, some questions could be strengthened with details that enable participants to be more accurate in their responses. Likewise, it is likely that a single questionnaire may not fully capture the depth and complexity of football coaches’ experiences, perspectives, and conceptions regarding DM. Additionally, the results may have a widespread gender bias, considering that the questionnaire was answered by only four women, equivalent to 1.7% of the sample, which suggest that more research of this type is needed involving female football coaches. Another limitation is that the research was conducted at specific point in time, which means that new studies could yield different results, this could be improved by conducting new longitudinal investigations to confirm the findings obtained.

Conclusions

Based on the findings of this research, a consensus among the football coaches regarding certain conceptual categories that define DM can be confirmed. These include choice, cognitive and deliberate processes, ability, problem-solving, and technique-all of which have also been recognized by sports theorists and scientists. Additionally, other categories such as game comprehension and understanding, game situation, effectiveness, and speed were identified as contributing to the definition of DM. However, the study also identified conceptual gaps, semantic ambiguities, and misconceptions in some coaches’ understanding of DM. Furthermore, the football coaches perceived technical execution as the strongest phase in Colombian players’ DM process, while understanding and interpretation were seen as the weakest. Additionally, the coaches assessed the DM level of Colombian football players as regular, indicating room for improvement.

Practical applications and recommendations

It is important to explore and deepen the knowledge and experiences of football coaches from different perspectives that allow for a deeper understanding of their conceptions regarding player DM. Research approaches and paradigms that combine and integrate both qualitative and quantitative data such as multimethod and mixed-method studies offer suitable possibilities for addressing this, therefore, we recommended their use. There are still conceptual gaps related to football coaches’ conceptions of DM, highlighting the need to continue improving the training and education of coaches, as well as improving training methodologies and player development. Strengthening the connection between theory and practice, as well as scientific research and football training, is essential for enhancing DM skills. To achieve this, collaboration between academic institutions, football federations, and clubs is crucial. Universities and other institutions responsible for training coaches, along with federations and confederations that oversee licensing programs, should work together to bridge gaps in knowledge.