This study assessed the effects of squat training with different velocity loss (VL) thresholds on squat strength, heavy-load squat velocity (HLSV), light-load squat velocity (LLSV), countermovement jump (CMJ) height, and sprint time (ST). A systematic search of electronic databases was conducted. Meta-analysis was used to examine effects of trainings with different VL thresholds and used meta-regression to examine the interaction effects (correlation) between training effects and VL in different performance-based outcomes. Our systematic search yielded 1017 articles, 13 of which were included in the present study. Meta-analysis revealed that resistance training with both low (0%–20%) and high (30%–45%) VL thresholds improved squat strength, HLSV, LLSV, and CMJ height, but only low VL improved ST (p < 0.05). Training gains for HLSV, LLSV, CMJ (p = 0.088), and ST with low VL were superior to those with high VL (p < 0.05). Meta-regression revealed that CMJ (p = 0.076) and ST (p = 0.010) demonstrated improvements as VL decreased in the range of 0% to 45%. In conclusion, squat resistance training with low (≤20%) VL provides relatively more effective training stimuli, improving performance in power and speed tasks. Optimal VL ranges may be in the range 10% to 20%, ≤20%, and ≤10% for the HLSV and LLSV, CMJ, and ST, respectively.
OrangeSTHritzAPearsonL, et al.Comparison of the effects of velocity-based vs. traditional resistance training methods on adaptations in strength, power, and sprint speed: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and quality of evidence appraisal. J Sports Sci2022; 40: 1220–1234.
2.
DeWeeseBHHornsbyGStoneM, et al.The training process: planning for strength–power training in track and field. Part 2: practical and applied aspects. J Sport Health Sci2015; 4: 318–324.
3.
SheppardJMTriplettNT. Program design for resistance training. In: HaffGGTriplettNT (eds) Essentials of strength training and conditoning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2016, pp.439–470.
4.
StoneMHCormiePLamontH, et al.Developing strength and power. In: JeffreysIMoodyJ (eds) Strength and conditioning for sports performance. Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2016, pp.230–260.
5.
SuchomelTJNimphiusSBellonCR, et al.Training for muscular strength: methods for monitoring and adjusting training intensity. Sports Med2021; 51: 2051–2066.
6.
SuchomelTJNimphiusSBellonCR, et al.The importance of muscular strength: training considerations. Sports Med2018; 48: 765–785.
7.
WeakleyJMannBBanyardH, et al.Velocity-based training: from theory to application. Strength Cond J2021; 43: 31–49.
8.
RichensBCleatherDJ. The relationship between the number of repetitions performed at given intensities is different in endurance and strength trained athletes. Biol Sport2014; 31: 157–161.
9.
Balsalobre-FernándezCTorres-RondaL. The implementation of velocity-based training paradigm for team sports: framework, technologies, practical recommendations and challenges. Sports2021; 9: 47.
10.
García-RamosAPestaña-MeleroFLPérez-CastillaA, et al.Mean velocity vs. mean propulsive velocity vs. peak velocity: which variable determines bench press relative load with higher reliability?J Strength Cond Res2018; 32: 1273–1279.
11.
Pareja-BlancoFRodríguez-RosellDSánchez-MedinaL, et al.Effects of velocity loss during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle adaptations. Scand J Med Sci Sports2017; 27: 724–735.
12.
WeakleyJMcLarenSRamirez-LopezC, et al.Application of velocity loss thresholds during free-weight resistance training: responses and reproducibility of perceptual, metabolic, and neuromuscular outcomes. J Sports Sci2019; 38: 477–485.
13.
Sánchez-MedinaLGonzález-BadilloJJ. Velocity loss as an indicator of neuromuscular fatigue during resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc2011; 43: 1725–1734.
14.
WeakleyJRamirez-LopezCMcLarenS, et al.The effects of 10%, 20%, and 30% velocity loss thresholds on kinetic, kinematic, and repetition characteristics during the barbell back squat. Int J Sports Physiol Perform2020; 15: 180–188.
15.
Pareja-BlancoFAlcazarJSánchez-ValdepeñasJ, et al.Velocity loss as a critical variable determining the adaptations to strength training. Med Sci Sports Exerc2020; 52: 1752–1762.
16.
GalianoCPareja-BlancoFHidalgo de MoraJ, et al.Low-velocity loss induces similar strength gains to moderate-velocity loss during resistance training. J Strength Cond Res2022; 36: 340–345.
17.
Rodríguez-RosellDYáñez-GarcíaJMMora-CustodioR, et al.Velocity-based resistance training: impact of velocity loss in the set on neuromuscular performance and hormonal response. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab2020; 45: 817–828.
18.
Pareja-BlancoFSánchez-MedinaLSuárez-ArronesL, et al.Effects of velocity loss during resistance training on performance in professional soccer players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform2016; 12: 512–519.
19.
Rodríguez-RosellDYáñez-GarcíaJMMora-CustodioR, et al.Effect of velocity loss during squat training on neuromuscular performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports2021; 31: 1621–1635.
20.
JukicICastillaAPRamosAG, et al.The acute and chronic effects of implementing velocity loss thresholds during resistance training: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and critical evaluation of the literature. J Sports Med2023; 53: 177–214.
21.
HickmottLMChilibeckPDShawKA, et al.The effect of load and volume autoregulation on muscular strength and hypertrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med Open2022; 8: 1–35.
22.
HeldSSpeerKRappeltL, et al.The effectiveness of traditional vs. velocity-based strength training on explosive and maximal strength performance: a network meta-analysis. Front Physiol2022; 13: 926972.
23.
González-BadilloJJSánchez-MedinaLRibas-SernaJ, et al.Toward a new paradigm in resistance training by means of velocity monitoring: a critical and challenging narrative. Sports Med Open2022; 8: 1–24.
24.
MoherDLiberatiATetzlaffJ, et al.Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med2009; 6: e1000097.
25.
HigginsJPThomasJChandlerJ, et al.Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2019.
26.
HigginsJPAltmanDGGøtzschePC, et al.The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. Br Med J2011; 343: d5928.
27.
StraussCCavanaghKOliverA, et al.Mindfulness-based interventions for people diagnosed with a current episode of an anxiety or depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. PLoS One2014; 9: e96110.
28.
CohenJ. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. London, UK: Academic Press, 2013.
29.
BorensteinMHedgesLVHigginsJP, et al.A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Res Synth Methods2010; 1: 97–111.
30.
BorensteinMHedgesLVHigginsJP, et al. Introduction to meta-analysis. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2021.
31.
HigginsJPThompsonSGDeeksJJ, et al.Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. Br Med J2003; 327: 557–560.
32.
DuvalSTweedieR. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics2000; 56: 455–463.
33.
PalmerTMSuttonAJPetersJL, et al.Contour-enhanced funnel plots for meta-analysis. Stata J2008; 8: 242–254.
34.
HeldSHeckstedenAMeyerT, et al.Improved strength and recovery after velocity-based training: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Sports Physiol Perform2021; 16: 1185–1193.
35.
Riscart-LópezJRendeiro-PinhoGMil-HomensP, et al.Effects of four different velocity-based training programming models on strength gains and physical performance. J Strength Cond Res2021; 35: 596–603.
36.
Rodríguez-RosellDMartínez-CavaAYáñez-GarcíaJM, et al.Linear programming produces greater, earlier and uninterrupted neuromuscular and functional adaptations than daily-undulating programming after velocity-based resistance training. Physiol Behav2021; 233: 113337.
37.
DorrellHFSmithMFGeeTI. Comparison of velocity-based and traditional percentage-based loading methods on maximal strength and power adaptations. J Strength Cond Res2020; 34: 46–53.
38.
CostillaMCasalsCMarín-GalindoA, et al.Changes in muscle deoxygenation during squat exercise after 6-week resistance training with different percentages of velocity loss. J Strength Cond Res2023; 37: 1573–1580.
39.
García-OreaGPRodríguez-RosellDBallester-SánchezÁ, et al.Upper-lower body super-sets vs. traditional sets for inducing chronic athletic performance improvements. PeerJ2023; 11: e14636.
40.
MyrholtRBSolbergPPettersenH, et al.Effects of low- versus high-velocity-loss thresholds with similar training volume on maximal strength and hypertrophy in highly trained individuals. Int J Sports Physiol Perform2023; 18: 368–377.
41.
RebeloAPereiraJRMartinhoDV, et al.Effects of a velocity-based complex training program in young female artistic roller skating athletes. J Hum Kinet2023; 86: 217–234.
42.
DaviesTOrrRHalakiM, et al.Effect of training leading to repetition failure on muscular strength: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med2016; 46: 487–502.
43.
RalstonGWKilgoreLWyattFB, et al.The effect of weekly set volume on strength gain: a meta-analysis. Sports Med2017; 47: 2585–2601.
44.
Pareja-BlancoFRodríguez-RosellDAagaardP, et al.Time course of recovery from resistance exercise with different set configurations. J Strength Cond Res2020; 34: 2867–2876.
45.
DelecluseC. Influence of strength training on sprint running performance: current findings and implications for training. Sports Med1997; 24: 147–156.
46.
RossALeverittMRiekS. Neural influences on sprint running: training adaptations and acute responses. Sports Med2001; 31: 409–425.
47.
RossALeverittM. Long-term metabolic and skeletal muscle adaptations to short-sprint training: implications for sprint training and tapering. Sports Med2001; 31: 1063–1082.
48.
AndersenJLAagaardP. Effects of strength training on muscle fiber types and size; consequences for athletes training for high-intensity sport. Scand J Med Sci Sports2010; 20: 32–38.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
