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Abstract

The creation of environmentally friendly synthesis methods is necessary for the synthesis of nanoparticles for a wide range of applications. In this study, we describe a straightforward and sustainable process for creating lead oxide nanoparticles from Actinidia deliciosa and Ananas comosus plant waste. The fruit peel of the aforementioned plants was used to make a methanolic extract, which in this work facilitated the synthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles. The crystalline structure of the lead oxide nanoparticles made from the obtained extract was verified by an X-ray diffraction examination. The strongest absorption bands were found when colloidal lead oxide nanoparticles were studied using UV–Vis spectroscopy. A green synthesis of nanoparticles showed the presence of functional peaks when lead nanoparticles were analyzed using the Fourier transform infrared method. The scanning electron microscope pictures made it clear that the majority of the lead oxide nanoparticles were irregularly shaped and spherical. The lead oxide nanostructures and the prepared extract were also tested for their antibacterial activity against Salmonella typhimurium, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, and Listeria. A high degree of antibacterial activity was found in lead oxide nanoparticles, suggesting their suitability for antimicrobial applications. In addition, the IC50 value was computed. Based on these results, a study showed that the biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles from the extracted fruit peels of Actinidia deliciosa and Ananas comosus can be used as an economical and sustainable substitute for lead oxide nanoparticle production.

Keywords

antibacterial activity fruit peel green synthesis lead oxide nanoparticles

Introduction

Particulate materials with at least one dimension less than 100 nm are included in the broad class of materials known as nanoparticles.^1,2 This classification includes a variety of structures, such as nanotubes and nanowires. Owing mainly to their size, nanoparticles exhibit special physical and chemical features that have drawn a lot of attention. Due to their qualities, they can be used in a wide range of industries, such as additives, textiles, food packaging, automotive, aerospace, and agricultural.^3,4 Furthermore, a wide range of biological uses for nanoparticles have been demonstrated, including antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant qualities.⁵ The growing problem of antibiotic resistance has increased interest in the latter.

There are two methods for approaching nanoscale: top-down and bottom-up. The top-down method entails shrinking the structure’s size to the nanoscale. However, as Figure 1 illustrates, the bottom-up method creates huge nanostructures from tiny atoms and molecules. Products made from metal nanomaterials, such as copper, silver, gold, selenium, and cadmium, among others, have beneficial qualities for a range of uses.²

Figure 1.

Representation of two different methods of approaching nanoscale: top-down versus bottom-up synthesis.

Silver, gold, copper, lead, and other metals have demonstrated their efficacy in treating a range of diseases.⁶ The use of metal nanoparticles in research and therapeutic applications has been more popular in recent years. Metal oxide and metal nanoparticles are two of the most commonly used nanomaterials.⁷ When compared to bulk materials, nanocatalysts exhibit noticeably higher reaction because of their enormous surface-to-volume ratio. We studied lead oxide nanoparticles among other metal oxide nanoparticles; lead oxide is the primary form of Pb oxide among the several oxide forms of the element. It is regarded as a semiconductor,⁸ a perfect photocatalyst that can be applied broadly to maintain environmental health by eliminating pollution and regulating the impurity of the air, wastewater, and water remedial system.⁹ Because of its electrical, mechanical, and optical properties, lead oxide is regarded as a significant industrial material that is both affordable and environmentally benign. It is mostly used in the production of batteries and is utilized in agriculture and medicine.^10–12

There are two primary types of nanomaterial synthesis: conventional methods and environmentally friendly approaches. Using conventional methods for nanomaterial production has many alluring advantages.¹³ These techniques yield a wide range of nanoparticles with numerous applications; however, the synthesis of these nanomaterials involves the extensive use of organic solvents, which presents a serious risk to neurobehavioral health and reproduction. In addition, the use of high pressure and heat conditions may contribute to hazardous working conditions.^14–16 One of the most important negative effects of these syntheses is the concern for volatile vapor and excessive carbon dioxide production, which significantly adds to the greenhouse effect.^17,18 All things considered, these techniques put the environment and the scientists doing the synthesis at irrevocable risk. The advantages of conventional nanomaterial manufacturing techniques are outweighed by these possible drawbacks.¹⁹ Green synthesis has gained traction as a result of the disuse of conventional synthesis techniques. The creation of innovative, forward-thinking techniques that adhere to the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry is crucial given the current climate situation.²⁰ Green synthesis is a response to these difficulties. It makes use of plant extracts from leaves, flowers, roots, peelings, fruits, and seeds of different plants. These extracts contain proteins and polyphenols that can take the place of chemical reagents in the synthesis of nanoparticles from their metal salt precursors as capping and reducing agents.²¹ Initially, the color shift of the colloidal solution can be used to validate the reduction of metal salt precursor to its subsequent nanoparticles.²² Metal nanoparticles can be produced with green materials and under the right parameters (temperature, concentration, air quality, etc.). Green synthesized metal nanoparticles can even outperform chemically synthesized ones in some circumstances. For instance, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles made using the green synthesis approach have a particle size range of 2–80 nm, which is substantially smaller than the 87–400 nm particles made using the wet chemical process. When opposed to chemical and physical processes, green synthesis offers numerous benefits, including non-toxicity, pollution-free production, environmental friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability.

It is commonly known that the primary cause of foodborne illness in humans is the intake of foods contaminated with foodborne pathogens, which include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and toxins. Food can become contaminated during pre-harvest, post-harvest, processing, transit, handling, or preparation, especially if it is minimally processed. The world’s leading cause of death is now infectious diseases due to the development of antibiotic-resistant organisms.²³ Drug resistance in bacteria is mostly caused by widespread drug overuse and abuse. A multidrug-resistant bacterial infection can have a number of negative effects, such as higher rates of death and morbidity, longer hospital stays, and financial loss.²⁴ Therefore, there is an increasing need to produce a novel, natural antibacterial agent due to the growing worry in multidrug-resistant foodborne pathogens.

Main content of Kiwis (Actinidia deliciosa) and Pineapples (Ananas Comosus) includes a mixture of protease which acts as a nutritional supplement to promote digestive health and is used as an anti-inflammatory agent. Main content of fruit peel is phenolics which is important bioactive compound for the benefit to health. Polyphenols present in both the plants possess antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties, which play a vital protective role in human. Specifically contains thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, oxalic acid, sucrose, glucose, fructose, and several amino acids. Here, these are reducing agents. The production of Kiwi and Pineapple generates a significant amount of waste, including stems, crowns, and peels. A waste-to-wealth initiative has been proposed to convert this waste into something useful to reduce the amount of waste.²⁵

This study presents the in vitro antibacterial activity of lead nanoparticles that were produced utilizing a sustainable manner by using a combined extract of peeling of Kiwis and Pineapples. The combined extract of waste of both the plants was used as a reducing and capping agent for the synthesis of lead nanoparticles. The lead nanoparticles were tested against different bacterial strains Campylobacter, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella typhimurium, and Listeria of clinical interest. The characteristics of the nanoparticles included morphology, size distribution, elemental analysis, and electron diffraction pattern. In addition, a line regression curve and zone of inhibition were developed.

Methodology

Materials

The analytical quality chemicals, metal precursors, and media components used in this experiment were all acquired from Sigma Aldrich Chemicals in India. We gathered fresh A. Comosus and A. deliciosa fruits from the Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, local market.

Preparation of extract

The aforementioned fruits were both carefully peeled, washed, and allowed to air dry at room temperature. Subsequently, the desiccated peeling was ground, and 30 g of each were thoroughly combined, dissolved in 500 mL of methanol, and brought to a gentle boil. Following that, the mixture was allowed to cool to ambient temperature before being filtered using the Whatman filter paper and stored in a refrigerator for later use.

Synthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles

In order to create lead oxide nanoparticles, 30 mL of lead nitrate solution and 70 mL of the previously obtained prepared extract were combined, stirred, and allowed to sit for a full day at room temperature. The extract’s brownish hue turned blackish during this period, Figure 2. The lead oxide nanoparticles were centrifuged for 15 min at 5000 revolutions per minute and then washed with deionized water, followed by drying and calcination at 400 °C after being verified by ultraviolet light. Furthermore, upon centrifugation, the lead oxide nanoparticles were extracted from the tube walls. After this, the redox of Pb²⁺ to Pb⁰ was accomplished using the phytochemicals included in the extract. Consequently, the extract’s active ingredients stabilized metallic ions to zero-valent metal. The extract of kiwis and pineapples included phenolic chemicals, which caused Pb²⁺ to oxidize rapidly through autoxidation.

Figure 2.

Biosynthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles.

Characterization techniques

Using a variety of assays, the optical, structural, and crystalline characteristics of the biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles were ascertained. The most common technique for identifying a material’s crystal structure, which indicates the specific chemical compounds and product quality, is X-ray diffraction (XRD). This technique is preferred above other approaches that involve analyzing a material’s composition of chemical elements. Through XRD examination at 27 °C, an X-ray diffractometer running at 40 kV with a 2-s time interval and a wavelength of light of λ = 1.5406 Å was used to identify the crystalline structure of the nanoparticles. The most popular kind of electron microscopy is the scanning electron microscope (SEM). It works similarly to scanning confocal microscopes in that it scans the surface of materials to investigate microscopic structure, but it achieves far higher resolution and a considerably broader depth of focus. Utilizing 20 keV scanning electron microscopy, the morphology was examined. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis of lead oxide nanoparticles at a concentration of 100 g/mL revealed their average hydrodynamic size and zeta potential in double-distilled water. The structure of the lead oxide nanoparticles can be ascertained by FTIR spectroscopy. The findings were documented at a range of 380 to 4000 cm⁻¹. The concentration of the solute in a solution that works toward absorption is found using UV-Vis spectroscopy. The absorbance fluctuates with the concentration. This is predicated on the Beer–Lambert rule, which asserts that a solution’s absorbance is directly correlated with the concentration of absorbing species present in the solution. Using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer, UV-Vis spectroscopy was used to validate the production of nanoparticles. For every sample, the medium scan speed was chosen as the measurement mode, and absorbance was chosen as the scan speed. Using a UV spectrophotometer, the biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles were examined between 230 and 370 nm.

Microbial cultures

Micro-organisms Campylobacter, C. perfringens, S. typhimurium, and Listeria were obtained from MTCC, India. On nutrient agar plates, bacterial stock cultures were first cultivated before being diluted to the appropriate concentrations using the broth.

Agar well diffusion

Pure cultures of the aforementioned bacterial strains were employed to investigate their in vitro antibacterial activity. Food poisoning and illnesses are caused by these pathogenic microorganisms that naturally contaminate food products obtained under faulty manufacturing circumstances. Using the Agar Well Diffusion method, lead oxide nanoparticles’ antibacterial properties were studied.²⁶ Using disk diffusion methods on agar, a qualitative screening of the susceptibility of several harmful bacteria to the relevant materials was carried out. To ensure an even lawn on strained growth, the inocula of Campylobacter, C. perfringens, S. typhimurium, and Listeria were disseminated in petri plates using the Muller Hinton Agar for streaking. Using a corker, wells were created, and then pipetted nanoparticle suspensions at 100, 200, 300, and 400 µg/mL. After that, the agar plates were incubated for 24 h at 37 °C. After 24 h, the zone of inhibition was noted. For every sample, five duplicates were tested, and the lead oxide nanoparticle response was expressed as means ±SD.

Result and discussion

Structural and morphological properties

X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a quick analytical method that can reveal unit cell dimensions and is mostly used to identify a crystalline material’s phase. One can observe that the size of the nanoparticles drops from 60 to 45 nm and even to about 10–20 nm when the production process is changed, that is, from chemical to sol-gel approach.²⁷ Lead nanoparticle’s XRD pattern is classified as tetragonal; an orthorhombic phase is indicated by a very tiny peak at 30.50 (2θ). The study conducted by Nafees et al.²⁸ used a step size of 0.05°s⁻¹ to acquire XRD patterns in the 2θ range of 20–75. The XRD patterns of a thin film of lead oxide 2θ between (5 and 80) are displayed in Figure 3. The film was created by biosynthesis using an extract of A. deliciosa and A. comosus and then drop cast onto a glass substrate. With Miller indices of (100), (101), (111), (011), (112), (202), and (211) that can be correlated with the crystal structure of lead oxide nanoparticles, it is shown that lead oxide thin films have a polycrystalline structure.²⁹ The average crystallite size of the PbO nanoparticles was found to be 57.64 nm using the Scherrer formula.³⁰

Figure 3.

XRD-spectra of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles.

All of the information that is now accessible regarding the nanoparticles at the nanoscale level is provided by the electron scanning-based SEM approach. This method is helpful for studying the dispersion of nanoparticles in the bulk or matrix as well as the shape of the nanomaterials. SEM is thought to be the best instrument for confirming the dimensions. Anisotropic nanoflake PbO production results in the development of a flower-like structure. According to periodic bond chain theory, where flat crystal formation depends on a discontinuous surface, the nucleic growth process proceeds spontaneously with a high activation energy.³¹ Figure 4 displays SEM images of lead oxide nanoparticles generated by the biosynthesis technique and coated on a glass substrate at various magnifications (high and low). The particles were found to be elliptical and spherical, with an average diameter of less than 100 nm. The suspension of cobalt nanoparticles was prepared in Mille-Q water, and their size was determined using a zeta sizer; size and zeta potential were found to be 40.9 ± 1.0 nm and −35.4 ± 2.1 mV.

Figure 4.

SEM images of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticle in (a) low and (b) high magnification.

FTIR analysis

FTIR can be used to examine the chemical bonding of lead oxide nanoparticles. Alagar et al.³² claim that the presence of lead and oxide is indicated by two extremely strong peaks on the FTIR spectra at 466.74 and 557.39 cm⁻¹. Figure 5 displays the FTIR spectra of the lead oxide nanoparticles that were biosynthesized. Pb-O stretching is shown by the absorption peak at 460 cm⁻¹, while oxides are indicated by the peak at 600 cm⁻¹. Both of these peaks are extremely pointed. The presence of lead and oxide in the finished product has been verified. In addition to these peaks, the OH stretching vibrations are represented by the band seen at 3300 cm⁻¹. The antisymmetric vibration of C–H in the alkyl chains is the source of the bands at 3000 cm⁻¹. The C=O stretching is shown as a weak band at 1695 cm⁻¹, whereas the C=C bond produces a significant peak at 2300 cm⁻¹. Around 1400 and 1500 cm⁻¹, respectively, strong and intense peaks are produced by the OH bending vibration in adsorbed water and C=C. The stretching vibration modes at 1595 cm^-1 and 1200 cm^-1, respectively, correlate to (C=O) and C–O, suggesting a little amount of airborne CO₂ dissolution. A strong peak at about 700 cm⁻¹ represents the Pb-O bond’s asymmetric bending vibration.³³

Figure 5.

FTIR-spectrum of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles.

UV-Vis analysis

The biogenesis of lead oxide nanoparticles was conclusively demonstrated by UV-Vis spectroscopy. To investigate the samples’ optical characteristics, a UV investigation was conducted in aqueous phase (H₂O). The exposed extract changed color as Pb⁺² was converted into Pb nanoparticles. At specific wavelength ranges, the conducting electron oscillates because of the greatest absorption peak, which is shown at 350 nm. The percentage of −OH and other active bioactive ingredients affects the size and shape of the materials used in the manufacturing of nanoparticles and the reduction of lead. These hydroxyl compounds reduced and maintained the M⁺ concentration. Furthermore, the size, shape, and distribution of the lead oxide nanoparticles have an impact on the absorption. The strong absorption peak at 352 nm, which is supported by references in the literature, indicates that lead oxide nanoparticles were present in the reaction mixture.³⁴

Antimicrobial assay

The ability of metal ions to inhibit enzymes, promote the production of reactive oxygen species, damage cell membranes, and impede the uptake of critically important microelements by microbes forms the basis of the antimicrobial activity of metals. In addition, a number of metals have the direct genotoxic activity.^35–37 The search for novel, safe, and effective antimicrobial medications must continue. NPs need to come into direct touch with the bacteria in order to kill them. Next, NPs interact with the essential elements of bacterial cell walls: enzymes, lysosomes, ribosomes, and DNA. One of the most important aspects of NPs’ antibacterial action is the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS). It is crucial to remember that different NP types affect oxygen molecules differently, resulting in a variety of ROS. Reactive intermediates and molecules with a positive redox potential are referred to as free radicals, or ROS. Drug-resistant microbes make treating infectious diseases more difficult in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with cancer or other malignancies. The quest for new antimicrobial chemicals has been facilitated by the isolation of numerous potent antibiotics from naturally occurring medicinal plants.³⁸

Lead oxide nanoparticles have proven to be a viable substitute for fighting various microbes.^39,40 Lead oxide nanoparticles have special properties that enable them to be effective against a variety of bacteria in addition to their capacity to stop the growth of strains resistant to drugs. First off, out of all the metallic nanoparticles, lead is recognized as the most powerful against bacteria and other pathogens. It is also extremely biocompatible and simple to work with in medical applications.^41,42 Its antibacterial activity is linked to various methods, some of which involve acting on the cell membrane, influencing intracellular components, and changing the respiratory chain.⁴³ This is another property of the compound. This last one is thought to be a significant advantage because it would be necessary for bacteria to target numerous simultaneous modes of action in order to develop resistance to lead oxide nanoparticles. Lead oxide nanoparticles have also been pushed as an antibiotic substitute because of these same reasons.

Regarding this, a number of studies on the potential effects of using nanoparticles as an antibiotic agent have been published recently. One of the main concerns is that, despite having different biological activities, lead oxide nanoparticles may cause the emergence of resistance against specific bacterial strains. For instance, the findings of Khan et al. demonstrated that Salmonella typhi was the most minimally affected by the lead oxide nanoparticles, which only inhibited Escherichia coli up to 36%. Researchers found that they could create lead oxide nanoparticles by stabilizing the plant material known as Mangifera indica. Biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles had a regulated size distribution, superior stability, and monodispersity. Through interaction with peptidoglycan, which resulted in structural alterations in the peptidoglycan, it produced apoptosis in bacteria. Lead oxide nanoparticles demonstrated extraordinary electrochemical and electrocatalytic capabilities despite their lower potential and sensitivity.³⁸ The investigation’s originality lies in the biosynthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles, which are evaluated against the four bacterial strains mentioned earlier, utilizing a combined extract of two distinct plant wastes. The parent-produced extract and lead oxide nanoparticles were tested for their antibacterial capabilities using Campylobacter, C. perfringens, S. typhimurium, and Listeria. For both lead oxide nanoparticles and the parent produced extract, the zone of inhibition for each strain is displayed in Table 1. The IC50 of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles is represented by a line regression curve in Figure 6, and the values obtained for Campylobacter, C. perfringens, S. typhimurium, and Listeria are 1.51, 1.49, 1.43, and 2.68 mg/mL, respectively. Lead oxide nanoparticles made from fruit waste were found to have high antibacterial activity against all bacterial strains, although the parent-produced extract had the least amount of activity against a subset of pathogens. When the concentration of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles rises, a steady increase in the diameter of the inhibitory zone is seen. This can be the result of the reaction mixture’s lead oxide nanoparticle concentration rising with synergistic mechanism of combined extract. Mainly, the most antibacterial activity of the nanoparticles was caused by different mechanisms like electrostatic interactions with bacterial membranes, the direct contact with bacterial cell walls, etc. Along with these mechanisms, synergistic effect, which is also responsible for enhanced biological activity, is proven by the above-mentioned results and supported by various researchers. Bidir Kassaw et al.⁴⁴ demonstrated the synergistic effects of chemicals originating from plants and the manufacture of lead oxide nanoparticles, which have potential for use as antibacterial agents in biomedical applications. Despite this, Mebin Joseph et al. found that the antifungal and antibacterial qualities were considerable and on par with those of conventional drugs. Their results demonstrated the effectiveness and prospective potential of lead oxide nanoparticles for a variety of uses, especially in the medical and environmental domains, with a focus on antibacterial treatments.⁴⁵ Using a plant extract from Chinese mahogany, another study conducted in 2023 details the plant-mediated synthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles under various environmental conditions. The findings indicate that the lead oxide nanoparticle is a safe and effective antimicrobial agent against harmful bacteria.⁴⁶

Table 1.

Antibacterial activity of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles and parent-prepared extract from the fruit waste of Actinidia deliciosa and Ananas comosus against different bacterial strain.

Name of bacterial strains	Zone of inhibition (mm) of parent-prepared extract				Zone of inhibition (mm) of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles
Name of bacterial strains	400 µg/mL	300 µg/mL	200 µg/mL	100 µg/mL	400 µg/mL	300 µg/mL	200 µg/mL	100 µg/mL
Campylobacter	00	00	00	00	26.33± 1.24	24.00± 0.81	21.66± 0.47	20.00± 0.81
Clostridium perfringens	16.00± 0.81	14.66± 0.47	14.66± 0.47	11.33± 1.24	32.33± 0.47	30.33± 0.47	29.00± 0.81	27.33± 1.24
Salmonella typhimurium	12.00± 0.81	11.66± 0.47	11.00± 0.81	10.33± 0.47	32.00± 0.81	30.66± 0.47	28.33± 0.47	27.00± 0.81
Listeria	00	00	00	00	29.33± 1.24	28.66± 1.24	27.66± 0.47	26.66± 0.47

Figure 6.

Line regression curve for the determination of IC50 of biosynthesized lead oxide nanoparticles (a) Campylobacter, (b) Clostridium perfringens, (c ) Salmonella typhimurium, and (d) Listeria.

Conclusion

The current work reports on the production of lead oxide nanoparticles employing A. comosus and A. deliciosa fruit waste extract as a reducing agent. These nanoparticles work incredibly well in the biomedical field and are non-toxic. The production of lead oxide nanoparticles is confirmed by FTIR and UV-Vis spectroscopy investigation. The spherical and elliptical shape of nanoparticles is shown by their structural and morphological characteristics. Four bacterial strains were used to investigate the antibacterial activity of the parent-produced extract and lead oxide nanoparticles: Campylobacter, C. perfringens, S. typhimurium, and Listeria. More lead oxide nanoparticles are discovered in the zone of inhibition than in the parent produced extract. Lead oxide nanoparticles exhibit the highest zone of inhibition and are more potent against S. typhimurium and C. perfringens. This might be the result of lead oxide nanoparticles being present in the reaction mixture, as spectroscopic examination may also show. Lead oxide nanoparticles are produced via a biosynthesis method that does not utilize any hazardous chemicals and is safe for the environment. As a preliminary finding suggesting the potential for fruit waste to be used in biomedical applications, our work is significant.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by Ongoing Research Funding Program (ORF-2025–27), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

ORCID iD

Saud Alarifi

Ethical consideration

There is no research using human or animal subjects in this article.

Consent to participate

Every author has consented to take part.

Consent for publication

The final manuscript has been seen by all authors, who have approved its publication.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by Ongoing Research Funding Program (ORF-2025–27), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

The main text of the manuscript contains all of the data created or examined during this investigation, and the authors will make them available upon request.

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Plant-based synthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles using Trigonella feonumgraecum extract and assessment of their cytotoxicity and photocatalytic activity. J Sol-gel Sci Technol 2023; 106: 572–580.

44.

Kassaw

Bizuayehu

Kendie

Eco-friendly synthesis and biological activity investigations of lead oxide nanoparticlesusing Rumex Nervosus Vahl leaf extract. Resultschem 2025; 16: 102437.

45.

Joseph

Pandian

Kaliyaperumal

, et al. Green synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial evaluation of lead oxide nanoparticles using Muntingia calabura leaf extract: a sustainable approach. Chem Pap 2024; 79: 1–4.

46.

Thakur

Sharma

Kumar

, et al. Bio-synthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles using Chinese mahogany plant extract (CMPE@LO) for photocatalytic and antimicrobial activities. Bionanosci 2023; 13: 1896–1910.

Green fabrication,characterization,and application of nano-sized particles of lead oxide from the different plants

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Methodology

Materials

Preparation of extract

Synthesis of lead oxide nanoparticles

Characterization techniques

Microbial cultures

Agar well diffusion

Result and discussion

Structural and morphological properties

FTIR analysis

UV-Vis analysis

Antimicrobial assay

Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

ORCID iD

Ethical consideration

Consent to participate

Consent for publication

Funding

Declaration of conflicting interests

Data availability statement

References