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Abstract

Magnetic nanoparticles have good potential application in textile, environmental, and waste water treatment cause for their unique properties such as large surface areas, size and shape-dependent catalytic properties. Magnetic nanoparticles can be used alone or to be one of a mixed matrix membrane. Smaller particle size provides a higher reactivity. But toxicity, recovery, and stability of these particles are important, and surface modification of these magnetic nanoparticles can reduce these anxieties. The properties and application of these nanoparticles in the textile industry are discussed in this review paper.

Keywords

Magnetic nanoparticles preparation potential applications textile industry smart products

Introduction

Metal nanoparticles are receiving an intense interest in scientific research and industrial applications cause for their unique properties such as large surface to volume ratio and quantum size effects [1,2]. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) also have drawn considerable attention for their remarkable merits such as high specific surface area, super paramagnetism, low bio toxicity, and good modify ability [3].

MNPs have metal-based configuration. They are zero-dimensional and inorganic materials and can be easily manipulated using alternating current magnetic field. MNP MNPs have different industrial, analytical, environmental, and biomedical applications [4]. MNPs have unique chemical and physical properties and widely used in biomedicine, biological, and medical applications [5].

MNPs with biomedical applications are classified into in vivo (inside the body) and in vitro (outside the body). The magnetic particles can be used for in vivo applications that include diagnostic processes such as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and therapeutic applications such as drug delivery [6] and magnetic hyperthermia [4,7]. In vitro applications are mainly used in MRI and diagnostic processes [8]. Some MNPs have antifungal and antibacterial activity [9].

On the other hand, metals are heavy with high cost and difficult to process, and so popularity and mobility of these products are limited [10]. Since metallized textiles combine the merits of textiles and bulk metals, they have been important nowadays. They can be shaped to form three-dimensional structures and can be tailored with scissors or folded. Different methods for construct metal coatings on textiles, such as electroplating, air brushing, vacuum deposition, sputter coating, evaporation, electroless plating, and in situ synthesis of nanoparticles on textiles can be used [11]. Also, for preparing the magnetic textile, magnetic fibers can be used that can be elements of magnetic cores and as parts of textile gauges, transmitters, and actuators; they can be used in electronic circuits and intelligent clothing products. They can monitor selected human physiological parameters [12].

The most important metallic MNPs are iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co). They have high magnetic properties and high ability to control and adjust their size, composition, and shape compared to magnetic metal oxide nanoparticles [4].

Recently, iron and iron oxide nanoparticles due to their magnetic properties have received significant interest [13]. Also, magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (BMNPs) have received much attention because of their applications in adsorption of organic compounds and metal ions like Cr6⁺, As³⁺, Cu²⁺, Hg²⁺, and Au³⁺ from aqueous solution [14].

Iron atom has four unpaired electrons in the 3D shell and has a strong magnetic moment. Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions have four and five unpaired electrons in their 3D shells, respectively. Formed crystals from iron ions can be in ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic states [15]. In the absence of a magnetic field, ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel alignment of moments result in the large net magnetization; however, in ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments are anti-parallel and not equal. Also, nickel oxide nanoparticles have excellent magnetic, optical, thermal, electronic, catalytic, and mechanical properties. They can be a proto-typical p-type semiconductor with a wide band gap of 3.6–4.0 eV. Active layers of gas sensors, dye-sensitized photo-cathodes, and cathode materials for alkaline batteries, smart windows, and electrochemical super capacitors are the most important applications of NiO nanoparticles [16].

Cobalt is one of the most significant magnetic metallic materials with special physical properties and high saturation magnetization and can be used for different applications such as magnetic catalysis, sensors, bio-imaging, and high density data storage. Cobalt is a good candidate for magnetic memory devices and microwave absorption cause of its high Curie [17,18].

These metallic MNPs have high reactivity to oxidation which loss partially or completely their magnetization property, and mixing these metallic MNPs enhance their resistance toward oxidation [4].

Magnetic nanoparticle preparation methods

Three methods are used to produce MNPs (Figure 1). In physical method which is a non-chemical “top-down” dispersion technique, producing the desired particle shape and size is difficult. Physical methods for the synthesis of magnetic nanoparticle occupy the pyrolysis of a magnetically sensitive material to deposit MNPs on a preferred target. Chemical vapor deposition, arc discharge, plasma vaporization, laser and spray pyrolysis, and solar energy-induced vaporization are some examples of physical synthesis method of MNPs which are suitable for in vitro applications [19]. By a laser ablation or evaporation synthesis method, synthesizing fine particles with average size of 20–50 nm has been reported.

Figure 1.

MNPs preparation methods.

Wet chemical preparation methods (bottom-up) are widely used, and there is an efficient control over particle size, shape, and geometry and overall surface features in this method. Reverse micelles, liquid co-precipitation, sol–gel, hydrothermal, and micro emulsion methods are some illustrations of chemical methods usually used for magnetic nanoparticle synthesis.

One of the unique methods for synthesizing of magnetic nanoparticle is biological methods which overcome within the bodies of some living creatures. A particular gene segment named magnetosome is involved in the synthesis of Fe nanoparticles in a lipoprotein chamber. This exceptional feature permits the host organisms to have their own in built magnetic field and respond to earth's magnetic field with its appropriate orientation. For various biomedical applications, these MNPs can be used. In microbial methods (magnetosome), the particles average size is about 20–45 nm. These methods provide high yield, scalability, good reproducibility, and control over the particle size and composition of the resulting material. Magnetosome consists of magnetic core enveloped by stable lipid membrane which contained some lipids and proteins [20 –22].

MNPs in textile industry

MNPs have good potential application in textile industry and wastewater treatment [23,24]. Magnetic fabric has some major types of preparation methods. First, textiles can be woven, knitted, or braided from magnetic yarns, such as stainless steel yarns. The other method is physical modification and magnetic-coating method. Other recent method to make textiles magnetic is based on 3D printing and ferromagnetic filaments used for printers; however, printer thickness layer can be modified to a defined position of a sample exactly. Magnetic textile has both textile characteristics and magnetic properties; so by using linear polymer to mix and spin together with high concentrated magnetic powder, magnetic fabric can be produced. Magnetic powder does not affect the performance of the fabric, but has definite influence on wear ability of the treated fabric [25,26].

Embedding MNPs in textile products and control ability of these nanoparticles cause a great number of possibilities for smart textile products (Figure 2). The most and important application of these nanoparticles in textile industry is discussed below.

Figure 2.

Application of MNPs in textile industry.

Smart textile (sensors and actuators) and wearable devices

Natural or synthetic fibers are used to produce flexible textiles. Textiles had a wide range of applications in human needs, for clothing, household items, construction materials, agriculture tools, transport devices, medical applications, and artistic expression. Apart from the traditional uses, recently, smart textiles are being attended [27].

Flexible electronics, textile sensors, and actuators and textile wires are new technologies being used in smart textiles. Textronic (textile-electronic) [28] is used in wearable electronics and textile sensors for sport wears [29]. Smart or intelligent materials can sense, react, and/or adapt to environmental stimuli. When they are exposed to the environment, first, they sense the stimuli and process the signal and then a reaction occurs. The stimuli can be electric and magnetic fields, force, temperature, radiation, and chemicals. Responses can be a movement and change in shape, composition, properties, or structures [30]. Smart textiles can be directly produced from smart materials and can be used as sensors, controlling device, and an actuator.

Intelligent clothing can be used for monitoring and protecting in sport activities and medical industry. Treating MNPs on fabrics and textile materials make them magnetic, and their microwave absorption properties are improved [31].

By exposing to an external stimulus like a magnetic field, shape memory materials (SMMs) which are smart materials remember and recover substantial program [32].

Magneto-responsive materials are kinds of stimulus-responsive materials which can be divided into different groups. By applying a magnetic field, the magnetostrictive which are ferromagnetic materials can change their magnetization under stress or shape; magnetorheological fluids can instantly change shape. Magnetocaloric undergoes reversible temperature changes when exposed to a changing magnetic field. Magnetorheological elastomers consist of regular elastomers filled with micron-sized magnetizable particles as iron [33]. Magneto-responsive materials can be embedded by magnetic fillers such as iron/iron-oxide, nickel, or cobalt compounds.

SMMs have been used in textile as clothing, yarn, and fabric. Programmable textiles and multifunctional smart textiles have important influence in aerospace, automotive, healthcare, construction, and clothing industry [34]. Smart textiles are functional for sensing, communication, therapy, navigation, and original fashions.

Wearable devices are equipments expanded significant attention cause of their ease of collecting fundamental information in real time regarding wearer's health continuously or non-invasively. Wearable healthcare devices promote people for their healthcare in a more suitable and low cost way and improving their observance. Wearable devices are becoming portable and small, recently [35]. Development of wearable textile sensors leads to improve the quality of human life [36].

Water treatment

Heavy metals are discharging from mining operations, tanneries, electronics, electroplating, and textile mill products and widely existed in surface water, groundwater, and also in drinking water [37]. Textile wastewater contains a variety of pollutants and toxic substances including dyes, organic loads, surfactants, and salts [38] which are non-biodegradable and represent a risk to ecosystems and human health [39].

MNPs and their composites (Table 1) such as magnetic chitosan composites have good sorption behavior toward various toxic pollutants in aqueous solution, and they are suitable for the treatment of water polluted with metal and organic materials cause of their fast adsorption rate and high adsorption efficiency [40,41]. Fe₃O₄, Fe₂O₃, NiFe₂O₄, CoFe₂O₄, CuFe₂O₄, and ZnFe₂O₄ are the magnetic particles that are typically embedded into chitosan. Magnetic core–chitosan and magnetic multi-cores are two methods of preparation magnetic chitosan composites [42]. Magnetic chitosan materials have various advantages such as fast adsorption rate, low cost of natural polymer base, high efficiency and selectivity, easily regenerated, and environmental friendly. However, dull preparation method, expensive functionalization, and pH-dependent adsorption are some disadvantages of magnetic chitosan materials. Advantages and disadvantages of magnetic chitosan materials are represented in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Advantages and disadvantages of magnetic chitosan materials.

Table 1.

MNPs and their composites used for textile wastewater treatment.

Metal/dye in wastewater	Magnetic composite used for wastewater treatment
Remazol Brilliant Orange 3R dye	Cobalt-oxide NPs [11]
Pb(II)	Fe₃O₄ –SiO₂ –GSH MNPs [37]
Ag	MCM/Fe₃O₄ [43] and Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-PEI [44]
Hg	Fe₃O₄ magnetic porous microspheres [45]
Acid dyes	3-Chloropropyltriethoxysilane/Fe₃O₄ [46]
Rhodamine B	Ni_0.5 Zn_0.5Fe₂O₄/Zn_0.95Ni_0.05O nanocomposites [47]
MB	Betaine-modified BMNPs [48]
Cr (VI)	Fe₃O₄/CTAB [15] and GEPCD-MNPs [49]
Reactive Blue 2	Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles/cotton-polyester fabric [50]
Reactive Red 198	Polyaniline/Fe₃O₄ [51]
Methyl orange	Co NPs/sodium borohydride [52]
Anionic dyes: Congo red, Orange G, Indigo carmine and MB	Aluminum cobalt oxide (CS-ACO) [53]
Reactive blue 198 dye	ZnO/Fe₃O₄/chitosan [54]

Silver nanoparticles have been widely used for cosmetics, paints, and textile fabrics. The wide use of these particles results in their release into wastewater from manufacturing entering into wastewater treatment plants. Silver nanoparticles are toxic to animals, human cells, and bacteria. So, the removal of these particles from water is needed severely.

For the separation of silver naoparticles from environmental waters, magnetic chitosan microsphere (MCM)/Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were fabricated as a reusable adsorbent with a simple, cost effective, and environmentally friendly method [43]. Best performance was reported by extracting a 20 mL sample (pH 4.5) with 10 mg adsorbent for 90 min, followed by elution with 1 mL 1% (w/v) thiourea in 10% (v/v) nitric acid for 10 min. The detection limit, calculated as 3 s, for three AgNPs coated with polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), citrate, and polyvinyl alcohol and sizes of 31, 40, and 46 nm, respectively, were in the range of 0.016–0.023 μg/L.

The poly (ethylenimine) functionalized core-shell magnetic mesoporous silica composites (Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-PEI) were prepared [44]. The adsorption capacity for AgNPs was reported at 909.1 mg/g. The silver adsorbed onto Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-PEI exhibits high catalytic activity for 4-NP reduction with a rate constant of 0.072/min. The silver-loaded Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-PEI promises good recyclability for at least five cycles.

Moreover, maghemite and magnetite have good biocompatibility and can be used for waste water treatment. For the removal of Pb (II) from wastewater, a nano absorbent based on iron oxide MNPs (Fe₃O₄), coated with SiO₂ shells and modified with reduced glutathione was synthesized [37]. Xu et al. [37] reported that, even at a large range of Pb (II) concentrations and ionic strength scope, the prepared nano adsorbents exhibited excellent adsorption capacity. Maximum adsorption capacities of Pb (II) were reported as 298.87, 332.44, and 357.37 mg g⁻¹ at 298, 303, and 308 K, respectively.

The super paramagnetic Fe₃O₄ magnetic porous microspheres have a potential application for the treatment of Hg-containing wastewater cause of its porous structure, large surface area, and high saturation magnetization [45]. A 99.1% adsorption efficiency for Fe₃O₄ magnetic porous microspheres was reported, and the Hg concentration can be decreased from 24.18 to 0.242 µg/L in an Hg-containing wastewater.

Elfeky et al. [15] in 2017 investigated the elimination of Cr (VI) from aqueous solution using a composite from MNPs (Fe₃O₄) capped with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). The Fe₃O₄/CTAB was facile synthesized and simply regenerated in alkali solutions. Furthermore, the prepared composite can be reused and recycled; it is cost-effective and efficient for the removal of Cr (VI) from wastewater. They reported that by using 12 mg/mL Fe₃O₄/CTAB at pH 4 and contact time of 12 h, the maximum adsorption for removal of Cr (VI) was achieved [15].

A multi-layer cationic polymer was fabricated at 70 ℃ by condensation method [39]. Then, it was coated onto magnetic Fe₃O₄ under ultrasonic conditions by 20 min esterification. Multi-layer magnetic adsorbent was synthesized from β-cyclodextrin, succinic anhydride, 2,3-glycidyl trimethyl ammonium chloride, and MNPs and was evaluated for the treatment of Cr (VI).

These materials exhibit a good adsorption performance for Cr (VI) (118 mg/g) and reported to be good adsorbents for the removal of pollutants from wastewater because of their facile synthesis, low cost, unique cationic layered structure, cavity structure, and high efficiency.

For methyl blue (MB) removal from aqueous solution, an adsorbent based on betaine-modified BMNPs was synthesized that could be dispersed in water and exhibited excellent super para magnetism [46].

Large amounts of quaternary ammonium groups existing on the surface of BMNPs could promote absorption of MB via electrostatic forces. The maximum adsorption capacity for MB at room temperature was reported to be 136 mg g⁻¹. Betaine-modified BMNPs are cost effective and suitable for industrial applications which showed good reusability with 73.3% MB adsorption in the fifth cycle.

Li et al. [46] synthesized a new magnetic nanomaterial (3-chloropropyltriethoxysilane-modified Fe₃O₄ MNPs) modified with aminoguanidine. Aminoguanidine contains –NH or –NH₂ groups as adsorption sites and can interact with SO_3⁻ groups of acid dyes. High adsorption capacity was obtained at low pH values. Good reusability of the mentioned adsorbent has been reported [46].

In the other research, a visible light active Ni_0.5Zn_0.5Fe₂O₄/Zn_0.95Ni_0.05O nanocomposite was synthesized by sol–gel method. The photocatalytic activity of these nanocomposites was concluded by photo-decoloration of rhodamine B. The Ni_0.5Zn_0.5Fe₂O₄/Zn_0.95Ni_0.05O nanocomposites which are magnetically separable and cost effective can contribute to environmental remediation [47].

Use of MNPs and their composites for textile wastewater treatment was studied by several researchers, and some of the results are presented in Table 1. As can be seen, different metals such as Pb (II), Ag, Cr (VI), Hg, and different dyes such as acid dyes, reactive dyes, and anionic dyes which are existed in textile wastewater can be removed using magnetic composites. The iron oxide and cobalt oxide nanoparticle are the most effective MNPs that loaded and used in most magnetic composites.

Colored MNPs for water treatment.

To produce fluorescent-magnetic dual functional nanoparticles with inorganic cores and fluorescent shells, conjugated polymers with anionic and cationic side groups can be deposited on the MNPs. The fluorescence-labeled MNPs can be used for different usages such as detecting circulating tumor cells in the blood [55].

Textile dyeing uses high consumption of water, auxiliaries, salts, and energy and produces large amount of contaminating wastewaters. Cotton fabrics were dyed by dip-pad-dry method with the colored magnetic nanoparticle suspension by Wen and Sun [56]. Disperse Red 1 as a class of Azo dyes was used and impregnated in Fe₃O₄ MNPs following the Stöber method with some modifications. After dying the cotton fabrics, wastewater was subjected to magnet, and unbounded magnetic dyes were collected, recycled, and saved for the next dyeing procedures [56].

As shown in Figure 4, colorants can be impregnated into MNPs, skin-core structure can be shaped, and colored MNPs have been produced. The colored MNPs can be used in conventional textile dyeing and can be simply dispersed in water. With a magnet, particles movement can be controlled, and, in case of using this method, textile dyeing was performed without auxiliaries and salts.

Figure 4.

Schematic of colored magnetic nanoparticle for textile dyeing.

Cause of high surface energy and large surface area of nanoparticles, the colored MNPs demonstrated high affinity to the fabrics. Using a magnet, the un-bonded and remaining dyes in the wastewater can be collected in a simple, cost effective, and environmentally friendly way for the wastewater treatment process [56].

Catalyst

Catalysts can control the process leading to the suitable and desired end product and are mediated between the reagents in a chemical reaction. Textile material can be used as a support for the chemical auxiliaries, and textile catalysts are a new approach. Different classes of catalysts can be embedded onto textile materials, and the reaction can proceed on a large surface, increasing its efficiency [57]. Different classes of organo catalysts can immobilize on textile materials and heterogeneous organo catalysts with good properties achieved. Mayer-Gall et al. [57] reported that organo textile catalysts can be used for more than 250 cycles without losing activity and selectivity. Also, for the removal of organic textile dyes and dyeing wastewater, magnetic catalyst can be used.

Using co-precipitate/sol–gel methods, a magnetic composite of ZnO and chitosan was synthesized by Nguyen et al. [54]. They reported that ZnO/Fe₃O₄/chitosan nanocomposite improves the removal efficiency of reactive blue 198 dye with high photocatalytic activity and easy separation using a permanent magnet. They concluded that after three times of recycling, the percentage of photo degradation of ZnO/Fe₃O₄/chitosan reaches above 70% [54].

In another research work, a nano catalyst has been fabricated using Ag nanoparticle, mesoporous TiO₂, and CoFe₂O₄ nanoparticles [58]. Epoxidation of styrene (∼98.1% conversion of styrene with ∼94.5% selectivity of styrene oxide in 10 h), photocatalytic degradation of MB (complete photo degradation of MB under visible light within 60 min), and reduction of 4-nitrophenol (within 4 min with κ = 1.08/min) are the three major reactions of this nano catalyst. By using an external magnet, the catalyst can easily recover from the reaction mixture, and the recovered catalyst also reported to have an excellent reusability.

A nickel ferrite ionic liquid titanium dioxide (NiFe₂O₄/IL/TiO₂) nanocomposite was synthesized, characterized, and applied to catalysis [59]. The prepared nanocomposite exhibited high catalytic activity for the reduction of 2-nitroaniline in water at room temperature.

The magnetic catalyst can eliminate toxic organic compounds in textile wastewater and can be a good choice for the removal of dyestuffs from wastewater.

EMI shielding, microwave absorption and antistatic properties

In the past years, wave absorbing materials were propounded in communication technology and electromagnetic controlling systems such as telecommunication, industry, defense, security, and military systems. Electromagnetic wave energy could be weakened by wave-absorbing materials via absorption and reflection patterns.

Mechanisms of absorption loss are classified as resistance loss, dielectric loss, and magnetic loss. The absorbed energy could be turned into thermal energy within the materials, and the reflective attenuated energy would project back into the air. Different methods and materials can be used for microwave absorbing materials [60].

In a research work in 2017, reduced graphene oxide was in situ synthesized on carbon fiber composite textiles by Li et al. [60]. Then, electrochemical deposition method was used, and the nickel particles were deposited on the surface of three-dimensional carbon fiber/reduced graphene oxide. They concluded that flexible and light-weighted carbon fiber/reduced graphene oxide/nickel composite textile is a good candidate as conducting material in electronic technologies and electromagnetic shielding. This is due to its excellent magnetic property and qualified bandwidth (<−10 dB) of the prepared composite textile which is tuned by the reduced graphene oxide nano sheets and nickel nanoparticles.

A magnetic carbon fiber with nickel/Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles coatings was prepared by electrodeposition method [61]. Wang et al. reported that magnetization of carbon fiber with Ni/Fe₃O₄-NPs composite coatings was 47.6 emu/g and for carbon fiber with just Ni coatings was 19.8 emu/g. The Ni/Fe₃O₄-NPs composite coatings had higher permeability than carbon fiber with Ni coatings [45].

In another work [62], polyacrylonitrile textile was coated with Ni, Co, and their alloys, using electroless metal deposition method. By increasing the coating time, more crystalline structures were created, and Ni–Co structures show highest saturation magnetization. High performance microwave absorbing materials can be produced using polyacrylonitrile textiles and magnetic metal coatings. They reported that the prepared composite in Ni bath at 0.5 min leads to a wider absorption bandwidth and minimum coefficient of reflection, about of −42 dB and more than 99.99% of the microwave absorption. Magnetic nanoparticle-coated textiles can be a good candidate for broadband applications.

In the other research, by electrospinning technique, magnetic polyimide (PI) nanocomposite fibers containing γ-Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles have been prepared. Poly(amic acid)/Fe₃O₄ mixture solution was used as precursor followed by thermal curing as well as the transformation of Fe₃O₄ into γ-Fe₂O₃.

Li et al. [63] concluded that Fe₃O₄ contents had significant effects on morphology of PI/γ-Fe₂O₃ nanocomposite fiber. By increasing the Fe₃O₄ content from 2 to 6 wt %, the saturation magnetization of the composite is increased from 2.38 to 3.72 emu g⁻¹. These magnetic PI/γ-Fe₂O₃ nanocomposite fibers can be applicable in membrane separation, magnetic recording, and wave absorption [63].

Use of MNPs and their composites on natural and synthetic textiles for EMI shielding by different methods was recently studied and presented in various papers. In Table 2, some of used nanomagnetic particles for EMI shielding are presented. As can be seen, cobalt, nickel, and iron oxide are the most effective MNPs that has been loaded and used in most EMI shielding materials, and significant reflection loss was reported.

Table 2.

Nano magnetic composite used for EMI shielding.

Textile	Magnetic composite used for EMI shield	Method	Reflection loss	Absorption bandwidth
Carbon fiber	Reduced graphene oxide/ nickel composite	Electrochemical deposition	<−10 dB	Microwave [60]
Carbon fiber	Ni/Fe₃O₄-NPs	Electro deposition	−58 dB	Microwave [61]
Polyacrylonitrile	Ni, Co, Ni and Co compound	Electroless metal deposition	−30, −50 dB	14.3 and 15.8 GHz [62]
Nano fiber Ni_xZn (1 − x) Fe₂O₄ (x = 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8) ferrite nanofibers	Ni, Zn, Fe oxide	Electrospinning using metal salts, DMF (N,N-dimethylformamide), PVP	−14.1 dB, −10 dB	10.9 GHz Microwave Band X frequency [64]
Cotton	Polyanilin, nano BaTiO₃, Fe₃O₄	Polyanilin polymerization on surface/impregnation with BaTiO₃, Fe₃O₄, dodecylbenzenesulfonate	−20 to −17 dB	Microwave [65]
Polyacrylonitrile	Ni, Co	Chemical vapor deposition	−20 dB	Microwave and Radar [66]

Microwave absorbing materials can be used in radar absorber, shielding material, navigation, aircraft technology, radio electronic devices, and wireless systems. However, cost, hardness/flexibility, thickness, weight, efficiency, stability, and electromagnetic and physical compatibility should be considered [62]. Metals and materials coated with a metallic compound have a very high EMI shielding efficiency (SE) ranging from 40 to 100 dB [67]. To enhance the EMI shielding effectiveness of shielding material, using conductive material with magnetic properties is a suitable and feasible method.

To reduce the static electricity that caused by the triboelectric effect, an antistatic treatment on the surface of materials is applied. Synthetic fibers have poor antistatic properties compared to natural fibers, and nanoparticles are used to improve the antistatic properties of textiles. Some of nanoparticles could impart antistatic properties to synthetic fibers and dissipate the static charge.

Conductivity and electrical resistivity are physical properties of a material that impact the electrostatic behavior. Various functional conductive nanomaterials can be used as antistatic finishing agents. For producing antistatic textiles with excellent conductivity, conductive fibers or yarns can be used.

Standard surface resistivity values for very good antistatic textiles at 65% relative humidity with regard to static propensity are 1 × 10⁶ to 1 × 10⁸ Ω. For assessing good antistatic properties, surface resistivity should be in the range of 1 × 10⁸ to 1 × 10⁹ Ω. However, surface resistivity more than 5 × 10¹⁰ Ω indicates insufficient assessment for antistatic finished textiles [68].

Using some MNPs such as nickel, iron, and cobalt on textile material makes them conductive with good antistatic properties.

Antimicrobial materials

Textiles are very important part of the human life. Textile materials are good environment for growing microorganisms and cause of their large surface area and ability to retain moisture [69]. With due attention to public health, there is an increasing need for antibacterial materials for different applications such as sportswear, medical, and protective textiles for the prevention of bacterial and fungal infections [70,71].

In a research study, carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) was grafted onto the surface of silica-coated MNPs to obtain magnetically retrievable and deliverable antimicrobial nanoparticles [72]. A 5 mg/mL of MNPs@CMCS showed 75% antimicrobial activity, but deposition of silver nanoparticles on the surface could significantly increase its antimicrobial activity cause of the dual action of CMCS and silver nanoparticles. Use of a 2 mg/mL MNPs@CMCS-Ag showed 100% killing of bacteria. By applying a magnetic field, MNPs@CMCS-Ag could be efficiently delivered into an existing biofilm.

In other work, Fe₃O₄/C₁₈ with 20 nm average size synthesized by precipitation of ferrous and ferric salts in aqueous solution of oleic acid (C₁₈) and NaOH to improve the anti biofilm properties of textile dressing. The coated textile was reported to be useful in the prevention of wound microbial contamination and subsequent biofilm development on implanted devices, viable tissues, otomastoiditis, nasal-sinus, and cervical wound dressing [73].

Amorphous carbon, C₈, C₁₈, graphene, graphene oxide, and activated carbon can be doped on Fe₃O₄ and functionalized magnetic materials. Prepared nanoparticles can be employed as appropriate sorbents in magnetic solid-phase extraction technique [74].

By co-precipitation of Ba₂ and Fe₃ cations, using sodium hydroxide under ultrasound, barium hexaferrite nanoparticles were synthesized and then were dispersed in an aqueous solution of the hydrogel precursors and treated on the cotton fabric under visible light by surface initiate photo polymerization. Staneva et al. [31] concluded that cotton fabric containing BaFe₁₂O₁₉ nanoparticles had good antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and can be used for wound-related pathogens.

Sono synthesis and sono fabrication of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles on cotton/polyester fabric using only one iron rich precursor (Fe²⁺ ions) were reported by Rastgoo et al. [50] in 2016. Antibacterial and antifungal properties along with photocatalytic and sono catalytic efficiency for treated fabrics were reported. To produce magnetic fabrics with appropriate saturation magnetization, sono chemical method was used and suggested.

Medical textiles

Medical textiles belong to the group of technical textiles, which are fiber-based products and used in a medical environment for the medical treatment of a wound, illness, or injury. Textile materials can be used in hygiene applications and healthcare. Natural fibers, regenerated, and synthetic fibers can be used for the medical textiles [75].

MNPs can be used in biomedical applications such as hyperthermia, drug delivery, MRI, stabilization of essential oils, inhibition of microbial colonization, and antitumoral treatment with/without magnetic field [76].

The MNPs functionalized textile can be used as wound dressing and wound care materials, and many articles have been published in this field [76,77].

Anghel et al. [73] examined the improvement of the anti-biofilm properties of textile dressing by functionalized magnetite (Fe₃O₄/C₁₈) nanoparticles and were tested in-vitro against monospecific Candida albicans biofilms. Prepared textile dressing samples was resistant to Candida albicans colonization [73].

Textile implants regularly contained polymers which cannot be determined from the ambient tissues with usual radiological imaging methods such as ultrasound, X-ray, MRI, and computed tomography. The conception of a visible mesh implant in MRI is recognized by compounding superparamagnetic iron oxides (SPIOs) into the polymer of the mesh, which can be visualized as signal voids in MRI due to the magnetic field distortion caused by the SPIOs. Iron oxide nanoparticles were incorporated in threads by Slabu et al. [78], and applied methods are a possible approach to control the optimization process of different MR-visible mesh types.

Toxicity of magnetic particles

It may be worth mentioning that toxicity has been constantly and truly challenged in order to assure that products containing metal nanoparticles are safe for use and comply to required regulations (e.g. medical devices; clinical studies, biocompatibility, stability studies, etc.). One of the biggest challenges is to prove the concentrations of the nanoparticles release (e.g. metal-antimicrobial wound dressings).

Ply with question about nanoparticles toxicity has risen in case of increase of using them in different researches, materials, medicine, and industries [79]. Up to date, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles which coated with biocompatible organic or inorganic polymer have been approved for clinical use [80,81]. The toxicity of magnetic particles depends on different factors such as size, dose, chemical composition, structure, solubility, surface chemistry, route of administration, biodegradability, and bio-distribution [82].

MNPs have different applications in different industries and are easily separable and recyclable of heterogeneous nanoparticle catalysts. TiO₂ is a successful material which can be applied for the functionalization of magnetic nanoparticle and coating material [59]. Also, the MNPs can be re-concentrated and reused again [83].

Conclusion

Many researchers attempted to prepare high functional MNPs, cause of their magnetic and catalytic properties. The iron, nickel, and cobalt nanoparticles are the most effective MNPs that loaded and used in most magnetic composites and textile applications. MNPs have promising potential application in textile industry for use in smart textiles, flexible sensors, flexible EMI shielding materials, textile wastewater treatment, medical textiles, antibacterial materials, and catalysts. The toxicity of magnetic particles related to different features, however, are easily separable and can be re-used and recycled. Combining magnetic nanoparticle technology with textile industry opens the door for many exciting applications in areas such as health care, wearable devices, and shielding materials.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Magnetic nanoparticles application in the textile industry—A review

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Magnetic nanoparticle preparation methods

MNPs in textile industry

Smart textile (sensors and actuators) and wearable devices

Water treatment

Colored MNPs for water treatment.

Catalyst

EMI shielding, microwave absorption and antistatic properties

Antimicrobial materials

Medical textiles

Toxicity of magnetic particles

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

References