Perceived autonomy support and structure in predicting students’ academic emotions during second language learning: The mediating role of self-efficacy
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2025
Perceived autonomy support and structure in predicting students’ academic emotions during second language learning: The mediating role of self-efficacy
Emotions are crucial predictors for students’ performance and achievement during second language learning, so it is necessary to acquire knowledge about their antecedents. Based on the control-value theory and self-determination theory, this study investigates how teacher provided autonomy support and structure influence students’ emotions through the mediation of self-efficacy. A total of 754 college students in their first or second year from a Chinese university completed the validated questionnaires measuring perceived autonomy support and structure in English class, self-efficacy and academic emotions (enjoyment, pride, anxiety and boredom). Hypothesized relations among the constructs were analysed using structural equation modeling. Results indicate that autonomy support has direct effects on anxiety and boredom, while structure has direct influence on enjoyment and pride. Moreover, both autonomy support and structure can contribute to a higher level of self-efficacy, which in turn positively predicts enjoyment and pride, negatively predicts anxiety and boredom. These results reveal that an autonomy supportive and well-structured class environment can significantly activate students’ positive emotions as well as decrease negative emotional experience during second language learning, with self-efficacy playing a mediating role.
AhmedW.van der WerfG.KuyperH.MinnaertA. (2013). Emotions, self-regulated learning, and achievement in mathematics: A growth curve analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 150–161.
2.
AnF.YuJ.XiL. (2023). Relations between perceived teacher support and academic achievement: Positive emotions and learning engagement as mediators. Current Psychology, 42, 26672–26682.
3.
ArtinoA.R.HolmboeE.S.DurningS.J. (2012). Control-value theory: Using achievement emotions to improve understanding of motivation, learning, and performance in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 64. Medical Teacher, 34, 148–160.
4.
BanduraA. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
5.
BarabadiE.KhajavyG.H. (2020). Perfectionism and foreign language achievement: The mediating role of emotions and achievement goals. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 65, Article 100874.
6.
BaumeisterR.F.VohsK.D.FunderD.C. (2007). Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 396–403.
7.
BelmontM.SkinnerE.WellbornJ.ConnellJ. (1992). Teacher as social context: A measure of student perceptions of teacher provision of involvement, structure, and autonomy support. Technical report. University of Rochester.
8.
BianY.-F. (2003). Development and application of the self-efficacy scale. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.
9.
BotesE.DewaeleJ.-M.GreiffS. (2020). The foreign language classroom anxiety scale and academic achievement: An overview of the prevailing literature and a meta-analysis. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 2, 26–56.
10.
BoudreauC.MacIntyreP.DewaeleJ.-M. (2018). Enjoyment and anxiety in second language communication: An idiodynamic approach. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8, 149–170.
11.
BryanC.L.SolmonM.A. (2007). Self-determination theory in physical education: Designing class environments to promote active lifestyles. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 26, 260–278.
12.
ByrdD.AbramsZ. (2022). Applying positive psychology to the L2 classroom: Acknowledging and fostering emotions in L2 writing. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 925130.
13.
ChenJ.GuoY.HuX. (2015). Effect of autonomous motivation and family’s social class on the relationship between teacher’s autonomy support and junior middle school students’ academic engagement. Psychology of Development and Education, 31, 180–187.
14.
ChengY. (2017). Development and preliminary validation of four brief measures of L2 language- skill-specific anxiety. System, 68, 15–25.
15.
DavariH.KaramiH.NourzadehS.IranmehrA. (2020). Examining the validity of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire for measuring more emotions in the foreign language classroom. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43, 701–714.
16.
DeciE.L.EghrariH.PatrickB.C.LeoneD.R. (1994). Facilitating internalization: The self- determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality, 62, 119–142.
17.
DeciE.L.RyanR.M. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
18.
DewaeleJ.-M.LiC. (2020). Emotions in second language acquisition: A critical review and research agenda. Foreign Language World, 196, 34–49.
19.
DewaeleJ.-M.MacIntyreP.D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4, 237–274.
20.
DewaeleJ.-M.MagdalenaA.F.SaitoK. (2019). The effect of perception of teacher characteristics on Spanish EFL learners’ anxiety and enjoyment. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 1–16.
21.
DewaeleJ.-M.WitneyJ.SaitoK.DewaeleL. (2018). Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety: The effect of teacher and learner variables. Language Teaching Research, 22, 676–697.
22.
EastwoodJ.D.CavaliereC.FahlmanS.A.EastwoodA.E. (2007). A desire for desires: Boredom and its relation to alexithymia. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1035–1045.
23.
EkatushabeM.KwarikundaD.MuwongeC.M.SsenyongaJ.SchiefeleU. (2021). Relations between perceived teacher’s autonomy support, cognitive appraisals and boredom in physics learning among lower secondary school students. International Journal of STEM Education, 8, Article 8.
24.
GardnerR.C.MacIntyreP.D. (1993). On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning. Language Learning, 43, 157–194.
25.
GeitzG.Joosten-ten BrinkeD.KirschnerP.A. (2016). Changing learning behavior: Self- efficacy and goal orientation in PBL groups in higher education. International Journal of Educational Research, 75, 146–158.
26.
GutiérrezM.TomásJ.M. (2019). The role of perceived autonomy support in predicting university students’ academic success mediated by academic self-efficacy and school engagement. Educational Psychology, 39, 729–748.
27.
HaerensL.AeltermanN.Van den BergheL., et al. (2013). Observing physical education teachers’ need-supportive interactions in classroom settings. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 35, 3–17.
28.
HayatA.A.ShateriK.AminiM.ShokrpourN. (2020). Relationships between academic self-efficacy, learning-related emotions, and metacognitive learning strategies with academic performance in medical students: A structural equation model. BMC Medical Education, 20, Article 76.
29.
HospelV.GalandB. (2016). Are both classroom autonomy support and structure equally important for students’ engagement? A multilevel analysis. Learning and Instruction, 41, 1–10.
30.
HuY.FangC.WuJ.MiL.DaiP. (2024). Investigating the interrelationship among academic emotions, classroom engagement, and self-efficacy in the context of EFL learning in smart classrooms in China. Australian Journal of Psychology, 76, Article 2300460.
31.
HuangY. (2023). Examining the relationship between peer support and foreign language emotions in online learning: The mediating effect of self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1148472.
32.
JangH. (2008). Supporting students’ motivation, engagement, and learning during an uninteresting activity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 798–811.
33.
JangH.ReeveJ.DeciE.L. (2010). Engaging students in learning activities: It is not autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 588–600.
34.
JelasZ.M.AzmanN.ZulnaidiH.AhmadN.A. (2016). Learning support and academic achievement among Malaysian adolescents: The mediating role of student engagement. Learning Environment Research, 19, 221–240.
35.
KatzI.AssorA. (2007). When choice motivates and when it does not. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 429–442.
36.
KhajavyG.H.LüfteneggerM. (2025). Pride in foreign language learning: A conceptual framework and empirical evidence. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 19, 379–394.
37.
KrukM.PawlakM.ZawodniakJ. (2021). Another look at boredom in language instruction: The role of the predictable and the unexpected. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 11, 15–40.
38.
LeónJ.NúñezJ. L.LiewJ. (2015). Self-determination and STEM education: Effects of autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning on high school math achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 43, 156–163.
39.
LiC.DewaeleJ.-M.JiangG. (2020). The complex relationship between classroom emotions and EFL achievement in China. Applied Linguistics Review, 11, 485–510.
40.
LiC.WeiL. (2023). Anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom in language learning amongst junior secondary students in rural China: How do they contribute to L2 achievement?Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45, 93–108.
41.
LiuH.-R.YaoM.-L.LiJ.LiR.-X. (2021). Multiple mediators in the relationship between perceived teacher autonomy support and student engagement in math and literacy learning. Educational Psychology, 41, 116–136.
42.
LuoW.NgP.T.LeeK.AyeK.M. (2016). Self-efficacy, value, and achievement emotions as mediators between parenting practice and homework behavior: A control-value theory perspective. Learning and Individual Differences, 50, 275–282.
43.
MacIntyreP.D. (1999). Language anxiety: A review of the research for language teachers. In YoungD.J. (Ed.), Affect in foreign language and second language teaching: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere (pp. 24–45). McGraw-Hill.
44.
MacIntyreP.D.DewaeleJ.-M.MacmillanN.LiC. (2019). The emotional underpinnings of Gardner’s attitudes and motivation test battery. In MacIntyreP.D.Al-HoorieA. (Eds.), Contemporary language motivation theory: 60 years since Gardner and Lambert (1959) (pp. 57–79). Multilingual Matters.
45.
MacIntyreP.D.GregersenT.MercerS. (Eds.). (2016). Positive psychology in SLA. Multilingual Matters.
46.
MartinA.J.CollieR.J. (2019). Teacher–student relationships and students’ engagement in high school: Does the number of negative and positive relationships with teachers matter?Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 861–876.
47.
MartinA.J.DowsonM. (2009). Interpersonal relationships, motivation, engagement, and achievement: Yields for theory, current issues, and educational practice. Review of Educational Research, 79, 327–365.
48.
MegaC.RonconiL.De BeniR. (2014). What makes a good student? How emotions, self- regulated learning, and motivation contribute to academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106, 121–131.
49.
MouratidisA.MichouA.AeltermanN.HaerensL.VansteenkisteM. (2018). Begin-of- school-year perceived autonomy-support and structure as predictors of end-of-school-year study efforts and procrastination: The mediating role of autonomous and controlled motivation. Educational Psychology, 38, 435–450.
50.
MouratidisA.VansteenkisteM.MichouA.LensW. (2013). Perceived structure and achievement goals as predictors of students’ self-regulated learning and affect and the mediating role of competence need satisfaction. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 179–186.
51.
NieY.LauS. (2009). Complementary roles of care and behavioral control in classroom management: The self-determination theory perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 185–194.
52.
PatallE.A.SteingutR.R.VasquezA.C., et al. (2018). Daily autonomy supporting or thwarting and students’ motivation and engagement in the high school science classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110, 269–288.
53.
PekrunR. (2006). The control value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 315–341.
54.
PekrunR.GoetzT.FrenzelA.C.BarchfeldP.PerryR.P. (2011). Measuring emotions in students’ learning and performance: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ). Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36, 36–48.
55.
PekrunR.GoetzT.PerryR.P. (2005). Academic Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ). User manual. Department of Psychology, University of Munich.
56.
PekrunR.GoetzT.TitzW.PerryR.P. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37, 91–105.
57.
PekrunR.PerryR.P. (2014). Control-value theory of achievement emotions. In PekrunR.Linnenbrink-GarciaL. (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 130–151). Routledge / Taylor & Francis.
58.
PekrunR.StephensE.J. (2010). Achievement emotions: A control-value approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 238–255.
59.
PreissR.W.GayleB.M.AllenM. (2006) Test anxiety. Academic self-efficacy and study skills: A meta-analytic review. In GayleB.M.PreissR.W.BurrellN.AllenM. (Eds.), Classroom interaction and instructional processes: A meta-analytic review (pp. 99–111). Lawrence Erlbaum.
60.
RaccanelloD.Balbontín-AlvaradoR.da Silva BezerraD., et al. (2022). Higher education students’ achievement emotions and their antecedents in e-learning amid COVID- 19 pandemic: A multi-country survey. Learning and Instruction, 80, Article 101629.
61.
ReeveJ. (2006). Teachers as facilitators: What autonomy-supportive teachers do and why their students benefit. The Elementary School Journal, 106, 225–236.
62.
SadoughiM.HejaziS.Y. (2021). Teacher support and academic engagement among EFL learners: The role of positive academic emotions. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 70, Article 101060.
63.
SaitoK.DewaeleJ.AbeM.In’namiY. (2018). Motivation, emotion, learning experience, and second language comprehensibility development in classroom settings: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Language Learning, 68, 709–743.
64.
ShaoK.PekrunR.MarshH.W.LodererK. (2020). Control-value appraisals, achievement emotions, and foreign language performance: A latent interaction analysis. Learning and Instruction, 69, Article 101356.
65.
ShaoK.StockingerK.MarshH.W.PekrunR. (2023). Applying control-value theory for examining multiple emotions in L2 classrooms: Validating the achievement emotions questionnaire – Second language learning. Language Teaching Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688221144497
66.
ShaoK.Q.YuW.H.JiZ.M. (2013). An exploration of Chinese EFL students’ emotional intelligence and foreign language anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 97, 919–931.
67.
SierensE.VansteenkisteM.GoossensL.SoenensB.DochyF. (2009). The synergistic relationship of perceived autonomy support and structure in the prediction of self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 57–68.
68.
SimontonK.L.SolmonM.A.GarnA.C. (2019). Exploring perceived autonomy support and emotions in university tennis courses. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, 134–148.
69.
SkinnerE.A.BelmontM.J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571–581.
70.
SkinnerE.A.FurrerC.MarchandG.KindermannT. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic?Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 765–781.
71.
SkinnerE.A.Zimmer-GembeckM.J.ConnellJ.P. (1998). Individual differences and the development of perceived control. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63, 1–220.
72.
SunD. (2016). Study on the effects of teachers’ self-support and class goal structure on students’ learning emotion and input. Theory and Practice in Education, 36, 15–17.
73.
TeimouriY. (2018). Differential roles of shame and guilt in L2 learning: How bad is bad?The Modern Language Journal, 102, 632–652.
74.
TeimouriY.GoetzeJ.PlonskyL. (2019). Second language anxiety and achievement: A meta- analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41, 363–387.
75.
TuckerC.M.ZaycoR.A.HermanK.C., et al. (2002). Teacher and child variables as predictors of academic engagement among low-income African American children. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 477–488.
76.
TulisM.FulmerS.M. (2013). Students’ motivational and emotional experiences and their relationship to persistence during academic challenge in mathematics and reading. Learning and Individual Differences, 27, 35–46.
77.
TzeV.M.DanielsL.M.KlassenR.M. (2016). Evaluating the relationship between boredom and academic outcomes: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 28, 119–144.
78.
VansteenkisteM.SierensE.GoossensL., et al. (2012). Identifying configurations of perceived teacher autonomy support and structure: Associations with self-regulated learning, motivation and problem behavior. Learning and Instruction, 22, 431–439.
79.
WangJ.LiuR.D.DingY., et al. (2017). Teacher’s autonomy support and engagement in math: Multiple mediating roles of self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and boredom. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1006.
80.
WangM.HuJ. (2022). Perceived teacher autonomy support for adolescents’ reading achievement: The mediation roles of control-value appraisals and emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 959461.
81.
XieX.GuoJ. (2022). Influence of teacher-and-peer support on positive academic emotions in EFL learning: The mediating role of mindfulness. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 32, 439–447.
82.
YangX.Y. (2014). Analysis of the current situation of Chinese EFL learners. Modern Business Trade Industry, 10, 139–140.
83.
ZhangD.H.FuD.M.LiuH.Y.LiuL.M. (2018). Effect of perceived teacher’s autonomy support on students’ achievement: The mediating role of autonomy psychological need and intrinsic motivation. Teacher Education Research, 30, 79–86.
84.
ZhangX. (2019). Foreign language anxiety and foreign language performance: A meta-analysis. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 763–781.
85.
ZhangY.H.ZhaoY.H.LuoY.Y.YangX.TanD.W. (2022). The relation between autonomy support and music enjoyment in online learning for music undergraduates in the post-COVID-19 era. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 1062546.
