The Value of Small Samples to Groups and Teams Research: Accumulating Knowledge across Philosophies of Science

Abstract

The large increase in the average sample size of team studies published in premier management journals over the past decade is concerning. A strict focus on large samples suppresses the study of many teams, particularly less prominent ones; for example, teams in small or medium-sized enterprises, teams in unique contexts, teams containing underrepresented minorities, and teams adopting new technologies. It also impedes our collective understanding of teams by devaluing work relying on philosophies of science that do not prioritize large samples. Large samples allow positivists to establish relationships between constructs. Yet, contextualized, rich data from as few as just one team can help constructivists uncover lived experiences or could be studied by critical realists to identify mechanisms underlying social systems of active agents. In this paper, we review how these three philosophies of science view sample size, addressing how and when small samples are beneficial. Importantly, research from all three traditions is necessary to build an in-depth, practical understanding of teams. We also describe five specific ways small sample research can contribute to team science and lay out four general recommendations for assessing the value of sample size in team research. Throughout, we maintain that scientific progress is collective and pluralistic. A sole reliance on large samples threatens this goal.

Keywords

Groups and teams sample size positivism constructivism critical realism

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abramis

D. J.

(1990). Semiconductor manufacturing teams. In Hackman

J. R.

(Ed.), Groups that work (and those that don’t) (pp. 449–471). Jossey-Bass.

Aldrich

H. E.

Ruef

(2018). Unicorns, gazelles, and other distractions on the way to understanding real entrepreneurship in the United States. Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(4), 458–472. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2017.0123

Alvesson

Sandberg

(2020). The problematizing review: A counterpoint to Elsbach and van Knippenberg’s argument for integrative reviews. Journal of Management Studies, 57(6), 1290–1304. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12582

American Psychological Association . (2020). Publication manual of the American psychological association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Amey

Emich

K. J.

Forbes

C. E.

(2023). When majority men respect minority women, groups communicate better: A neurological exploration. Small Group Research, 54(6), 759–791. https://doi.org/10.1177/10464964231175640

Appelbaum

Cooper

Kline

R. B.

Mayo-Wilson

Nezu

A. M.

Rao

S. M.

(2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000191

Arrow

McGrath

J. E.

Berdahl

J. L.

(2000). Small groups as complex systems: Formation, coordination, development, and adaptation. Sage Publication. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452204666

Bachrach

D. G.

Lewis

Kim

Patel

P. C.

Campion

M. C.

Thatcher

(2019). Transactive memory systems in context: A meta-analytic examination of contextual factors in transactive memory systems development and team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(3), 464–493. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000329

Barrick

M. R.

Stewart

G. L.

Neubert

M. J.

Mount

M. K.

(1998). Relating member ability and personality to work-team processes and team effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(3), 377–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.377

10.

Barsade

S. G.

(2002). The ripple effect: Emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47(4), 644–675. https://doi.org/10.2307/3094912

11.

Begerowski

S. R.

Hedrick

K. N.

Waldherr

Mears

Shuffler

M. L.

(2023). The forgotten teammate: Considering the labor perspective in human-autonomy teams. Computers in Human Behavior, 145(5), Article 107763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107763

12.

Bell

S. T.

(2007). Deep-level composition variables as predictors of team performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 595–615. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.3.595

13.

Birks

D. F.

Fernandez

Levina

Nasirin

(2013). Grounded theory method in information systems research: Its nature, diversity and opportunities. European Journal of Information Systems, 22(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejis.2012.48

14.

Boydstun

A. E.

Wallach

Young

D. G.

Allen

J. A.

(2023). The role of humor in work group dynamics in times of crisis. Small Group Research, 54(6), 792–833. https://doi.org/10.1177/10464964231173335

15.

Brainard

(2023, November 24). Can AI help scientists surf a paper flood? Science, 382(6673), 866–867. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adn0184

16.

Brannan

M. J.

Fleetwood

O’Mahoney

Vincent

(2017). Critical essay: Meta-analysis: A critical realist critique and alternative. Human Relations, 70(1), 11–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726716674063

17.

Brannen

M. Y.

Salk

J. E.

(2000). Partnering across borders: Negotiating organizational culture in a German-Japanese Joint venture. Human Relations, 53(4), 451–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726700534001

18.

Bresman

(2013). Changing routines: A process model of vicarious group learning in pharmaceutical R&D. Academy of Management Journal, 56(1), 35–61. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0725

19.

Bromiley

Johnson

(2005). Mechanisms and empirical research. In Research methodology in strategy and management (pp. 15–29). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

20.

Campbell

D. T.

Stanley

J. C.

(1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental design for research on teaching. In Gage

N. L.

(Ed.), Handbook for research on teaching. Rand McNally.

21.

Cardinale

(2018). Beyond constraining and enabling: Toward new microfoundations for institutional theory. Academy of Management Review, 43(1), 132–155. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2015.0020

22.

Charmaz

(2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

23.

Chilisa

Kawulich

(2012). Selecting a research approach: Paradigm, methodology and methods. In Wagner

Kawulich

Garner

(Eds.), Doing social research: A global context (pp. 51–61). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

24.

Chiu

W. T.

Arnold

Shih

Y. T.

Hsiung

K. H.

Chi

H. Y.

Chiu

C. H.

Tsai

W. C.

Huang

W. C.

(2002). A survey of international urban search‐and‐rescue teams following the Ji Ji earthquake. Disasters, 26(1), 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7717.00193

25.

Cohen

(1990). Things I have learned (so far). American Psychologist, 45(12), 315–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/10109-028

26.

Cohen

(1994). The earth is round (p < .05). American Psychologist, 49(12), 997–1003. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.49.12.997

27.

Colquitt

J. A.

Zapata-Phelan

C. P.

(2007). Trends in theory building and theory testing: A five-decade study of the Academy of management journal. Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1281–1303. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2007.28165855

28.

Corley

K. G.

(2015). A commentary on “what grounded theory is…” engaging a phenomenon from the perspective of those living it. Organizational Research Methods, 18(4), 600–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115574747

29.

Cronin

M. A.

(2015). Advancing the science of dynamics in groups and teams. Organizational Psychology Review, 5(4), 267–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386615606826

30.

Cronin

M. A.

Stouten

Van Knippenberg

(2021). The theory crisis in management research: Solving the right problem. Academy of Management Review, 46(4), 667–683. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2019.0294

31.

Cumming

(2014). The new statistics: Why and how. Psychological Science, 25(1), 7–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613504966

32.

Denison

D. R.

Sutton

R. I.

(1990). Operating room nurses. In Hackman

J. R.

(Ed.), Groups that work (and those that don’t) (pp. 293–308). Jossey-Bass.

33.

Durand

Vaara

(2009). Causation, counterfactuals, and competitive advantage. Strategic Management Journal, 30(12), 1245–1264. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.793

34.

Edmondson

(1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999

35.

Edmondson

A. C.

(2003). Speaking up in the operating room: How team leaders promote learning in interdisciplinary action teams. Journal of Management Studies, 40(6), 1419–1452. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00386

36.

Edmondson

A. C.

(2019). The fearless organization: Creating psychological safety in the workplace for learning, innovation, and growth. Wiley.

37.

Edmondson

A. C.

Lei

(2014). Psychological safety: The history, renaissance, and future of an interpersonal construct. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091305

38.

Edmondson

A. C.

McManus

S. E.

(2007). Methodological fit in management field research. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1246–1264. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.26586086

39.

Elsbach

K. D.

van Knippenberg

(2020). Creating high-impact literature reviews: An argument for ‘integrative reviews’. Journal of Management Studies, 57(6), 1277–1289. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12581

40.

Emich

Ferguson

A. J.

Peterson

McCourt

Martin

McClean

Woodruff

C. T.

(2023). Better together: Member proactivity is better for team performance when aligned with conscientiousness. Academy of Management Discoveries, 10(2), 250–272. https://doi.org/10.5465/amd.2021.0208

41.

Emich

K. J.

Kumar

Li.

Norder

Pandey

(2020). Mapping 50 years of small group research through small group research. Small Group Research, 51(6), 659–699. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496420934541

42.

Emich

K. J.

Ferguson

A. J.

Peterson

R. S.

McCourt

(2022). Team composition revisited: A team member attribute alignment approach. Organizational Research Methods, 25(4), 642–672. https://doi.org/10.1177/10944281211042388

43.

Emich

K. J.

McCourt

Ferguson

Peterson

(2024). Team composition revisited: Expanding the team member attribute alignment approach to consider patterns of more than two attributes. Organizational Research Methods, 27(2), 329–348. https://doi.org/10.1177/10944281231166656

44.

Evans

C. R.

Dion

K. L.

(2012). Group cohesion and performance: A meta-analysis. Small Group Research, 43(6), 690–701. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496412468074

45.

Frazier

M. L.

Fainshmidt

Klinger

R. L.

Pezeshkan

Vracheva

(2017). Psychological safety: A meta‐analytic review and extension. Personnel Psychology, 70(1), 113–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12183

46.

George

Haas

M. R.

Pentland

(2014). Big data and management. Academy of Management Journal, 57(2), 321–326. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2014.4002

47.

Gersick

C. J. G.

(1990). The bankers. In Hackman

J. R.

(Ed.), Groups that work (and those that don’t) (pp. 112–125). Jossey-Bass.

48.

Gibson

C. B.

Gibbs

J. L.

(2006). Unpacking the concept of virtuality: The effects of geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, dynamic structure, and national diversity on team innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51(3), 451–495. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.51.3.451

49.

Goh

K. T.

Pentland

B. T.

(2019). From actions to paths to patterning: Toward a dynamic theory of patterning in routines. Academy of Management Journal, 62(6), 1901–1929. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2018.0042

50.

Guba

E. G.

(1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. ECTJ, 29(2), 75–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766777

51.

Hackman

J. R.

(Ed.), (1990). Groups that work (and those that don’t). Jossey-Bass.

52.

Hackman

J. R.

(1998). Why teams don’t work. In Tinsdale

R. S.

Heath

Edwards

Posavac

E. J.

Bryant

F. B.

Suarez-Balcazar

Henderson-King

Myers

(Eds.), Theory and research in small groups (pp. 245–267). Plenum Press.

53.

Harré

Madden

E. H.

(1975). Causal powers: A theory of natural necessity. Blackwell.

54.

Healey

M. P.

Hodgkinson

G. P.

(2015). Toward a theoretical framework for organizational neuroscience. In Toward a theoretical framework for organizational neuroscience (Vol. 7, pp. 51–81). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1479-357120150000007002

55.

Hofstede

G. H.

(1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage Publications.

56.

Ilgen

D. R.

Hollenbeck

J. R.

Johnson

Jundt

(2005). Teams in organizations: From input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 56(1), 517–543. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250

57.

Jones

L. V.

Tukey

J. W.

(2000). A sensible formulation of the significance test. Psychological Methods, 5(4), 411–414. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.5.4.411

58.

Kane

A. A.

(2010). Unlocking knowledge transfer potential: Knowledge demonstrability and superordinate social identity. Organization Science, 21(3), 643–660. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1090.0469

59.

Kane

A. A.

Argote

Levine

J. M.

(2005). Knowledge transfer between groups via personnel rotation: Effects of social identity and knowledge quality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.09.002

60.

Kane

A. A.

Levina

(2017). “Am I still one of them?”: Bicultural immigrant managers navigating social identity threats when spanning global boundaries. Journal of Management Studies, 54(4), 540–577. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12259

61.

Kane

A. A.

Paletz

S. B. F.

Vahlkamp

S. H.

Nelson

Porter

Diep

Carraway

(2023). Intelligence analysis shift work: Sensemaking processes, tensions, and takeaways. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society - Annual Meeting, 67(1), 741–746. https://doi.org/10.1177/21695067231192569

62.

Kane

A. A.

van Swol

L. M.

(2023). Using linguistic inquiry and word count software to analyze group interaction language data. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 27(3), 188–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/gdn0000195

63.

Katz

Kahn

R. L.

(1978). The social psychology of organizations (Vol. 2, p. 528). Wiley.

64.

Kirk

R. E.

(2007). Effect magnitude: A different focus. Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference, 137(5), 1634–1646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspi.2006.09.011

65.

Kivunja

Kuyini

A. B.

(2017). Understanding and applying research paradigms in educational contexts. International Journal of Higher Education, 6(5), 26–41. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v6n5p26

66.

Kostopoulos

K. C.

Bozionelos

(2011). Team exploratory and exploitative learning: Psychological safety, task conflict, and team performance. Group & Organization Management, 36(3), 385–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601111405985

67.

Kunisch

Denyer

Bartunek

J. M.

Menz

Cardinal

L. B.

(2023). Review research as scientific inquiry. Organizational Research Methods, 26(1), 3–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/10944281221127292

68.

Kush

Aven

Argote

(2023). A text-based measure of transactive memory system strength. Small Group Research, 55(2), 231–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/10464964231182130

69.

Landon

L. B.

Slack

K. J.

Barrett

J. D.

(2018). Teamwork and collaboration in long-duration space missions: Going to extremes. American Psychologist, 73(4), 563–575. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000260

70.

Lawani

(2021). Critical realism: What you should know and how to apply it. Qualitative Research Journal, 21(3), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-08-2020-0101

71.

Lehmann-Willenbrock

Hung

Keyton

(2017). New frontiers in analyzing dynamic group interactions: Bridging social and computer science. Small Group Research, 48(5), 519–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496417718941

72.

Leon

G. R.

Sandal

G. M.

Fink

B. A.

Ciofani

(2011). Positive experiences and personal growth in a two-man North Pole expedition team. Environment and Behavior, 43(5), 710–731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916510375039

73.

Levitt

H. M.

Bamberg

Creswell

J. W.

Frost

D. M.

Josselson

Suárez-Orozco

(2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73(1), 26–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000151

74.

Liang

D. W.

Moreland

Argote

(1995). Group versus individual training and group performance: The mediating role of transactive memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(4), 384–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167295214009

75.

Lincoln

Y. S.

Guba

E. G.

(1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications.

76.

Luciano

M. M.

Fenters

Park

Bartels

A. L.

Tannenbaum

S. I.

(2021). The double-edged sword of leadership task transitions in emergency response multiteam systems. Academy of Management Journal, 64(4), 1236–1264. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2019.0707

77.

Martin

S. R.

Emich

K. J.

McClean

Woodruff

(2022). Keeping teams together: How ethical leadership moderates the effects of performance on team efficacy and social integration. Journal of Business Ethics, 176(1), 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04685-0

78.

Mathieu

J. E.

Aguinis

Culpepper

S. A.

Chen

(2012). Understanding and estimating the power to detect cross-level interaction effects in multilevel modeling. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(5), 951–966. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028380

79.

Mathieu

J. E.

Gallagher

P. T.

Domingo

M. A.

Klock

E. A.

(2019). Embracing complexity: Reviewing the past decade of team effectiveness research. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 6(1), 17–46. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015106

80.

Mathieu

J. E.

Wolfson

M. A.

Park

Luciano

M. M.

Bedwell-Torres

W. L.

Ramsay

P. S.

Klock

E. A.

Tannenbaum

S. I.

(2022). Indexing dynamic collective constructs using computer-aided text analysis: Construct validity evidence and illustrations featuring team processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 107(4), 533–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000856

81.

Matusov

(1996). Replicability in research: The crisis of positivist ideology in the social sciences. Theory & Psychology, 6(3), 545–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354396063012

82.

Maynard

M. T.

Conroy

Lacerenza

C. N.

Barnes

L. Y.

(2021). Teams in the wild are not extinct, but challenging to research: A guide for conducting impactful team field research with 10 recommendations and 10 best practices. Organizational Psychology Review, 11(3), 274–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386620986597

83.

Maynard

M. T.

Kennedy

D. M.

Resick

C. J.

(2018). Teamwork in extreme environments: Lessons, challenges, and opportunities. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(6), 695–700. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2302

84.

Mayo

A. T.

(2022). Syncing up: A process model of emergent interdependence in dynamic teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 67(3), 821–864. https://doi.org/10.1177/00018392221096451

85.

McClean

Martin

S. R.

Emich

K. J.

Woodruff

(2018). The social consequences of voice: An examination of voice Type and gender on status and subsequent leader emergence. Academy of Management Journal, 61(5), 1869–1891. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2016.0148

86.

McGrath

J. E.

(1964). Social psychology: A brief introduction. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

87.

McGrath

J. E.

(1981). Dilemmatics: The study of research choices and dilemmas. American Behavioral Scientist, 25(2), 179–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276428102500205

88.

McGrath

J. E.

Martin

Kulka

R. A.

(1981). Some quasi-rules for making judgment calls in research. American Behavioral Scientist, 25(2), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276428102500206

89.

Meehl

P. E.

(1967). Theory-testing in psychology and physics: A methodological paradox. Philosophy of Science, 34(2), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1086/288135

90.

Mertens

(2009). Transformative research and evaluation. Guilford Press.

91.

Mesquita

L. F.

Lazzarini

S. G.

(2008). Horizontal and vertical relationships in developing economies: Implications for SMEs’ access to global markets. Academy of Management Journal, 51(2), 359–380. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2008.31767280

92.

Miller

K. D.

(2015). Agent-based modeling and organization studies: A critical realist perspective. Organization Studies, 36(2), 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840614556921

93.

Miller

K. D.

Tsang

E. W.

(2011). Testing management theories: Critical realist philosophy and research methods. Strategic Management Journal, 32(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.868

94.

Mingers

(2006). Philosophical foundations: Critical realism. In Realising Systems Thinking: Knowledge and Action in Management Science (pp. 11–31). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29841-X_2

95.

Mingers

Standing

(2017). Why things happen–Developing the critical realist view of causal mechanisms. Information and Organization, 27(3), 171–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infoandorg.2017.07.001

96.

Müller-Frommeyer

L. C.

Kauffeld

(2022). Capturing the temporal dynamics of language style matching in groups and teams. Small Group Research, 53(4), 503–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/10464964211073347

97.

Norder

Emich

K. J.

Kanar

A. M.

Sawhney

Behrend

T. S.

(2022). A house divided: A multilevel bibliometric review of the job search literature 1973-2020. Journal of Business Research, 151, 100–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.06.036

98.

Norder

Emich

K. J.

Sawhney

(2018). Evaluating the interdisciplinary mission of Small Group Research using computational analytics. Small Group Research, 49(4), 391–408. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496418755511

99.

O’Neill

T. A.

Flathmann

McNeese

N. J.

Salas

(2023). 21st Century teaming and beyond: Advances in human-autonomy teamwork. Computers in Human Behavior, 147(1), Article 107865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107865

100.

Paletz

S. B. F.

Begerowski

Dubrow

Reiter-Palmon

Hedrick

K. N.

Waldher

Mears

Shuffler

M. L.

Resnick

Choudhury

Kane

A. A.

Vahlkamp

Diep

Porter

Nelson

(2023, July 21). Human-autonomy teams: Discovering what we need for agents, humans, and experiments. Interdisciplinary Network for Group Research.

101.

Park

Luciano

M. M.

Mathieu

J. E.

Fenters

V. W.

(2024). Intra-individual conflict and task performance in a multiteam context: Examining the structural elements of conflict experience. Academy of Management Journal, 67(1), 33–60. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2021.0285

102.

Park

Y. S.

Konge

Artino

A. R.

(2020). The positivism paradigm of research. Academic Medicine, 95(5), 690–694. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000003093

103.

Pasarakonda

Maynard

Schmutz

J. B.

Lüthold

Grote

(2023). How team familiarity mitigates negative consequences of team composition disruptions: An analysis of Premier League teams. Group & Organization Management, (Advance online publication). https://doi.org/10.1177/10596011231193176

104.

Pratt

M. G.

Kaplan

Whittington

(2020). Editorial essay: The tumult over transparency: Decoupling transparency from replication in establishing trustworthy qualitative research. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839219887663

105.

Psillos

(2009). Knowing the structure of nature: Essays on realism and explanation. Springer.

106.

Reiter-Palmon

Sinha

Gevers

Odobez

J. M.

Volpe

(2017). Theories and models of teams and groups. Small Group Research, 48(5), 544–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496417722841

107.

Rennie

D. L.

(1995). On the rhetorics of social science: Let’s not conflate natural science and human science. The Humanistic Psychologist, 23(3), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.1995.9986833

108.

Rockmann

Bunderson

J. S.

Leana

C. R.

Hibbert

Tihanyi

Phan

P. H.

Thatcher

S. M.

(2021). Publishing in the Academy of management journals. Academy of Management Perspectives, 35(2), 165–174. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2021.0051

109.

Rozeboom

W. W.

(1960). The fallacy of the null-hypothesis significance test. Psychological Bulletin, 57(5), 416–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042040

110.

Rynes

Gephart

R. P.

(2004). From the editors: Qualitative research and the Academy of management journal. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4), 454–462. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2004.14438580

111.

Saavedra

(1990). Beer sales and delivery teams. In Hackman

J. R.

(Ed.), Groups that work (and those that don’t) (pp. 361–381). Jossey-Bass.

112.

Santos

C. M.

Uitdewilligen

Passos

A. M.

Marques-Quinteiro

Maynard

M. T.

(2021). The effect of a concept mapping intervention on shared cognition and adaptive team performance over time. Group & Organization Management, 46(6), 984–1026. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120981623

113.

Stajkovic

A. D.

Lee

Nyberg

A. J.

(2009). Collective efficacy, group potency, and group performance: meta-analyses of their relationships, and test of a mediation model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(3), 814–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015659

114.

Stasser

Titus

(1985). Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: Biased information sampling during discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1467–1478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.6.1467

115.

Tashakkori

Teddlie

(2021). Sage handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research. Sage Publications.

116.

Tsang

E. W.

Kwan

K. M.

(1999). Replication and theory development in organizational science: A critical realist perspective. Academy of Management Review, 24(4), 759–780. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1999.2553252

117.

Tsoukas

(1989). The validity of idiographic research explanations. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 551–561. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1989.4308386

118.

Tucker

A. L.

Edmondson

A. C.

(2003). Why hospitals don’t learn from failures: Organizational and psychological dynamics that inhibit system change. California Management Review, 45(2), 55–72. https://doi.org/10.2307/41166165

119.

Tucker

A. L.

Nembhard

I. M.

Edmondson

A. C.

(2007). Implementing new practices: An empirical study of organizational learning in hospital intensive care units. Management Science, 53(6), 894–907. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1060.0692

120.

U.S. Office of Advocacy (2023, June 9). Frequently asked questions about small business 2023. SBA’s Office of Advocacy. https://advocacy.sba.gov/2023/03/07/frequently-asked-questions-about-small-business-2023/

121.

van Swol

L. M.

Kane

A. A.

(2019). Language and group processes: An integrative, interdisciplinary review. Small Group Research, 50(1), 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496418785019

122.

Varpio

MacLeod

(2020). Philosophy of science series: Harnessing the multidisciplinary edge effect by exploring paradigms, ontologies, epistemologies, axiologies, and methodologies. Academic Medicine, 95(5), 686–689. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000003142

123.

Wagstaff

C. R.

Weston

N. J.

(2014). Examining emotion regulation in an isolated performance team in Antarctica. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 3(4), 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000022

124.

Wasserman

(2004). All of statistics: A concise course in statistical inference. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-21736-9

125.

Weick

K. E.

(1993). The collapse of sensemaking in organizations: The Mann Gulch disaster. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(4), 628–652. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393339