Revolutionizing packaging: Bioplastics for superior food and pharmaceutical solutions

Abstract

The packaging industry is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by the pressing need for sustainable and eco-friendly solutions. Bioplastics have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional plastics, offering superior functionalities and environmental benefits for various applications, especially in food and pharmaceutical sector. This review explores the impact of bioplastics on packaging, focusing on their enhanced properties, sustainability and compatibility with stringent regulatory requirements. By extending the shelf life of food and pharmaceutical products, this improved barrier performance lowers waste and ensures product safety. Additionally, bioplastics have good biodegradability; in natural settings, they disintegrate into innocuous molecules, reducing their environmental impact. Reducing carbon emissions is another benefit of using bioplastics in packaging. Bioplastics are made with less greenhouse gas emissions than ordinary plastics, which help with the worldwide effort to fight climate change. Bioplastics may also be recycled and used again, which helps to conserve natural resources and cut down on waste. Moreover, bioplastics can be engineered to meet particular regulatory requirements, guaranteeing their appropriateness for a range of uses. Bioplastics have many benefits, however there are obstacles in the way of their broad use. These include the requirement for specialized recycling facilities, restricted supply, and increased production costs. However, it is anticipated that these issues will be resolved in the near future due to developments in bioplastic technology and rising demand for environmentally friendly alternatives. Bioplastics are expected to have a big impact on how people live in the future as efforts are made to lessen global warming and encourage sustainable habits.

Introduction

Plastics are used extensively in every facet of daily life, particularly in food packaging, drinks, food and various other goods. Plastics are composed of polymers, which are big molecules made up of smaller monomeric repeating units and usually referred to materials that are molded under pressure and heat. ¹ Since, they can be used to create so many valuable items, its discovery greatly improved life. But because of their strength, plastics do not break down quickly and some even do not break down at all. Plastics have long been favoured due to their convenience and affordability, but growing concerns about their environmental impact and sustainability are now causing a shift in perspective. Although the use of inexpensive petroleum products once justified replacing traditional materials like glass and metals, this argument is losing ground as the cost of non-renewable fossil fuels has risen significantly over the past three decades. ² Plastics are known for sticking around in the environment and causing significant harm to aquatic, terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The use of conventional petroleum-based plastics in the pharmaceutical sector has raised environmental and ethical questions as their persistence is harmful to environment. ³ In recent years, the global community has grown increasingly concerned about environmental sustainability and the pressing need to address the challenges posed by non-biodegradable plastics. This realization has fueled the demand for sustainable alternatives that can reduce the pharmaceutical industry’s carbon footprint and contribute to the global effort to mitigate plastic pollution. Significant health risks such as infertility, diabetes, obesity, prostate and breast cancer, thyroid, cardiovascular diseases, etc.are associated with chemicals generated during the manufacture and decomposition of plastics for both people and wildlife.^4,5 The commonly used plastics along with their sources, uses and health related concerns associated with them^6–8 are discussed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Sources, applications and related concerns associated with use of various plastics.

Plastic type	Source	Applications	Concerns associated with use of plastic
Polyethylene terephthalate	Terephthalic acid (crude oil)	Food and drinks packaging purposes	Leaching of chemicals into food and drinks, toxicity, environmental impact and microbiological concerns
	Ethylene glycol (natural gas)
High-density polyethylene	Petroleum	Grocery bags, milk jugs, recycling bins, agricultural pipe, playground equipments, ids, shampoo bottles	Mild dermatitis, burning sensation in eyes upon heating, dryness and irritation in nose and throat, itching and irritation of skin, asthma, hormone disruption
Polyvinyl chloride	Vinyl chloride monomer	Door and window profile pipes	Irritate the eyes, ,mucous membranes, respiratory tract
Low-density polyethylene	Natural gas and crude oil	Plastic bags, six pack rings, various containers, dispensing bottles and plastic wraps	Upon heating releases toxic chemicals into environment or seep into food
Polypropylene	Petroleum	Tupperwares, car parts, thermal vests, yogurt containers, diapers	Respiratory irritation, mild gastrointestinal irritation, skin irritation and also causes cancer
Polystyrene	Styrene (liquid petrochemical)	Beverage cups, insulation, packaging materials, egg cartons, disposable dinnerware	Leaches into food and drinks when heated, causes cancer, affects nervous system and may cause kidney-related problems
Polycarbonates	Bisphenol A and phosgene	Sunglasses lenses, sports and safety goggles, compact discs	Leaches into food and drinks, causes obesity, diabetes, heart diseases and also affects the development of foetus in womb

Plastics degradation leads to production of microplastics and nanoplastics that can easily cross the biological barriers and accumulates in food chain ⁹ Microplastics, due to its smaller size are invading our food chain and have been found in the placentas of developing children for the first time, which is quite concerning. They have potential to enter the food chain through aquatic species, animals and humans.^10,11 Thus, researchers are motivated to contribute to plastic research in order to create ecologically friendly and biodegradable materials like bioplastics by the current environmental challenges, as bioplastics have emerged as a promising solution to these challenges.The global market size of bioplastics and biopolymers was USD 11.5 billion in 2022 and is projected to reach USD 27.3 billion by 2027 at a CAGR of 18.9%. ¹² Bioplastics are produced from renewable resources like sugarcane or cornstarch. Due to its unique characteristics such as biodegradability, less time for production and lowering the greenhouse gas emissions to reduce environmental pollution, bioplastics are highlighted a lot for further innovation and applications. ¹³

Bioplastics: A sustainable alternative

Biodegradable or biological materials, such as corn starch, food waste, or even agricultural leftovers, are used to make bioplastics. Plastic made from petroleum, plastic made from biomass decomposes more easily in the environment. ¹⁴ In comparison, plastics are produced using crude oil or natural gases and hydrocarbons are extracted from these sources. ¹⁵ The hydrocarbons are further polymerised using monomers, catalysts and additives such as plasticizers, stabilizers and colorants. ¹⁶ The next step is to process the liquid or semi-solids into extrusion and incorporation into specific moulds, cooled and then the product is preceded for finishing, packaging and distribution. The bioplastics are obtained from plant starch, corn, sugarcane or other. ¹⁷ In some cases, microorganisms like bacteria or yeast are used to ferment sugars from plant sources into lactic acid or other bio-based monomer and these bio-based monomers can be extracted directly from plants. Further, it undergoes polymerisation, procession, cooling and finishing process. ¹⁸ Figure 1 depicts an overview of plastic and bioplastics production. The creation and widespread use of bioplastics mark a significant step toward minimizing our environmental impact and promoting a more ecologically conscious approach to materials and packaging at a time when the world is increasingly looking for sustainable alternatives. A suitable food packaging plastic is expected to keep its stored product with an acceptable moisture content that prevents microbial growth and spoilage.The food packaging is progressing fast in order to meet the world need for environmentally friendly and sustainable packaging material. These attempts are focused in various fronts which includes (i) improving the performance of natural biodegradable polymers using physical, chemical and enzymatic treatments, (ii) synthesizing new biodegradable polymers, improving the polymer characteristics, and scaling up the processes, (iii) improving the production of bio-based conventional polymers, and (iv) searching for new renewable sources.

Figure 1.

Various disposal options for both biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste.

Bioplastics besides its advantages such as renewable energy sources, biodegradable or compostable and lower toxicity, has several disadvantages like limited availability, potential durability issues and processing challenges. ¹⁹ Bioplastics could be classified into biodegradable bioplastics and non-biodegradable bioplastics. Biodegradable bioplastics are bioresources derived such as poly(lactic acid), poly(hydroxyalkanoate), bio-based poly(butylenes succinate). On the other hand, non-biodegradable bioplastics include bio-based poly(ethylene) (Bio-PE), bio-based poly(propylene) (Bio-PP), and bio-based poly(ethylene terephthalate) (Bio-PET), which are non-biodegradable, although they are derived from renewable resources. ²⁰ The detailed information of bioplastics is discussed below. The various sources of obtaining bioplastics includes biotechnology, biomass products and from microorganism; also shown in Figure 2 diagrammatically. Bacteria’s such as Pseudomonas species is responsible for production of polyhydroxyalkonates and Streptomyces sp. is responsible for synthesizing cellulose, chitin and pullulan via biosynthesis, fermentation, excretion or through genetic engineering. In biosynthesis, microbes can create proteins by linking sugar molecules to form polysaccharides or by polymerizing amino acids into proteins via ribosomes. ²¹ Fermentation involves the conversion of a substrate by bacteria into monomers like lactic acid or polymers like PHAs when oxygen is present or absent. While excreation, microorganisms also produces extracellular polymeric substances such as cellulose, curdlan, alginate. Polyhydroxyalkonates are one of the most studies bioplastics that are made from bacteria. These polymers are created when the microbe is subjected to stressors in the environment, such as low nutrition, changes in pH and temperature and a lack of electron donors or acceptor, among other things. It is synthesized and stored in the form of granules in the cytoplasm which can be later extracted through cell lysis. ²²

Figure 2.

Waste hierarchy established for prevention of waste by management.

Strain selection, genetic engineering, substrate preparation, fermentation, synthesis, harvesting, recovery, purification, refinement, formulation, and processing are all steps in the multistep process that goes into making bioplastics from bacteria. To introduce the microbe with the most satisfactory enzymatic activity in terms of substrate concentration and media at which it is immersed to manufacture the polymer, strain selection is crucial. The practice of genetic engineering often involves inserting a certain gene into the bacteria to enhance its ability to produce polymers by altering certain metabolic pathways. The preparation and choice of the substrate can significantly impact the characteristics and manufacturing efficiency of the polymer. ²³ Among many other things, some examples are lignocellulosic biomass, sucrose, glucose, and glycerol. Bacteria should ideally consume a low-value bioproduct or waste as it results in a more convenient and sustainable procedure. One of the biological processes that bacteria use to create the polymer or the monomer that is then utilized in polymerization is fermentation. The pH, temperature, stirring, nutrients, oxygen concentrations, and other factors can all have a significant impact on this stage. Depending on the substrate used, the metabolic process may alter, producing a distinct kind of biopolymer. The biopolymer is extracted and purified using filtration, centrifugation, chromatography, or other purification methods from the fermentation mixture and byproducts during the harvesting, recovery, and purification procedures. Once the biopolymer is produced, it can be processed using a variety of methods, including injection molding, melt extrusion, solvent casting, and 3D printing, to produce the polymer in the required shape.^24,25

1. Polylactic acid (PLA): PLA stands out as a prominent illustration of biodegradable, thermoplastic, linear aliphatic polyester, created through the fermentation of carbohydrates obtained from plants, including sugars and starch. ²⁶ It has been used to produce sutures in dermatology and cosmetics, delivery system materials, covering membranes, various bio-absorbable medical implants and scaffolds for tissue engineering. ²⁷ Despite its popularity as a bioplastic, PLA does come with certain limitations, including its pronounced hydrophobic nature, limited toughness, and relatively higher production costs in comparison to petro-plastics. These factors have notably hindered its widespread adoption. ⁵ Researchers have reported various studies on applications of polylactic acid in pharmaceutical packaging given in below section and Table 2. (Table 3).

Researchers produced bioplastic films from a combination of nano-calcium carbonated (nano-CaCO₃) and polylactic acid (PLA) synthesized from the Achatina Fulica snail shell using solvent casting method. It was observed that temperature-dependent, thermal and mechanical properties were improved considerably, signifying that the developed bioplastic films could be used for packaging applications. ²⁸ A novel and biodegradable polylactic acid film was fabricated using polyolefin elastomer, selenium nanoparticles and triethyl citrate for its potential use in food packaging with enhanced barrier and mechanical properties. ²⁹ PLA and polystyrene bioblends were prepared by melt mixing method and found its use in food packaging. ³⁰ Researchers prepared films with tunable properties by keratin extracted from chicken feather and PLA. The films were prepared by electrospinning method. This research offers recyclable, bio-based, and ecologically friendly material substitutes with adjustable qualities that can be applied to a wide range of applications, such as environmentally friendly food packaging. ³¹ Binary blends of PLA and polybutylene succinate co-adipate and ternary blends using PLA, polycaprolactone and polybutylene succinate co-adipate were prepared using molding process for the preparation of single dose strips. The ternary blends show sufficient flexibility during mold ejection and complete filling, making them appropriate for injection molding of the single dose strips. The strips also have notable impact resistance and mechanical strength. ³²

2. Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate: Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, a member of the polyhydroxyalkanoate family, is well-known for its biodegradability and compatibility with living organisms. This polymer is derived through microbial fermentation of renewable carbohydrate sources. ³³ The production process involves the condensation of acetoacetyl-Coenzyme A facilitated by a β-ketothiolase catalyst, resulting in acetoacetyl-CoA. This compound is subsequently transformed into 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA through a reduction process. Finally, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate synthase catalyzes the conversion of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA into poly-3-hydroxybutyrate. ³⁴ In the biomedical field, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate is extensively utilized for surgical implants, manufacturing cardiac valves, and producing medical dressings. Furthermore, in pharmacology, this polymer is employed for the encapsulation of medications, while in agriculture; it serves as a means to encapsulate fertilizers. Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate is also favoured for packaging food products and encapsulating dietary supplements. Additionally, it finds applications in the production of disposable items, diapers, and bottles. ³⁵ Researchers found poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) for packaging puroposes. One of the researcher modified poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) by nanofibres of bacterial cellulose and by treating with plasma or zinc oxide nanoparticles using melt compounding technique. The modified poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) enhanced the stiffness, strength and enhanced antibacterial activity. Thus, it was concluded that the modified poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) is proposed as a green solution for food packaging industry. ³⁶ Another researcher also used bacterial cellulose for modification of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and incorporated clove essential oil as an antimicrobial agent to be utilised as a biocompatible, biodegradable and active food packaging wrap. ³⁷

3. Polyamide 11 or Nylon 11: When 11-aminoundecanoic acid is polymerized, it forms polyamide 11, a bio-based polymer that belongs to the nylon family. ³⁸ It primarily comes from renewable sources, such as castor oil, and is distinguished by its chemical and mechanical stability, making it highly appealing from both an industrial and environmental aspect. ¹¹ Polyamide 11 and its composites can be recycled while not degrading naturally. This characteristic also makes it particularly ideal for applications that call for products that are robust and long-lasting. Its applications include the creation of electrical cables, clips, and wires. ⁵

4. Polyhydroxyurethanes: Polyurethanes are a type of biopolymer that holds a great potential for use in food and pharmaceutical packaging. ³⁹ The use of polyhydroxyurethanes is because of its unique properties such as biodegradability, ability to control-release active compounds and low toxicity. The synthesis of polyhydroxyurethanes encompasses several pathways: (i) the co-polymerization of aziridine with CO2, (ii) the polyaddition reaction between a bicyclic carbonate and a diamine, and (iii) the trans-urethanization process involving bicarbamate and a diol.Polyhydroxyurethanes are characterized by a high-density hydroxyl group, which bolsters their mechanical properties, making them well-suited for adhesive applications. ⁵ The researchers found that polyhydroxyurethanes had excellent mechanical properties and biodegradability, making them an attractive option for pharmaceutical packaging. Furthermore, the study highlighted the ability of polyhydroxyurethanes to release drugs in a controlled manner, ensuring optimal drug delivery to patients. These findings suggest that polyhydroxyurethanes could revolutionize pharmaceutical packaging by providing a safe and sustainable material for storing and administering drugs. Further research in this area is necessary to explore the full potential of polyhydroxyurethanes in pharmaceutical packaging. ⁴⁰ Researchers investigated the mechanical properties, barrier performance, and biodegradability of polyhydroxyurethane-based bioplastics for food packaging. The findings highlighted the promising potential of polyhydroxyurethanes in improving the mechanical strength and barrier properties of bioplastics, thus offering a viable alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics. These research efforts underscore the importance of developing sustainable packaging solutions that can reduce environmental impact while ensuring food safety and quality. ⁴¹

5. Cellulose based biopolymers: It is a polysaccharide known as cellulose is made up of glucose monomers connected by strong-1,4 glycosidic linkages. ¹¹ It is a well-known natural biopolymer that is abundant in lignocellulosic biomass obtained from forestry and agriculture. ⁴² Due to their biodegradability, excellent durability, strength, and stiffness, cellulose-based biopolymers are garnering a lot of attention. In order to improve the biodegradability of polymers, recent research has looked into using cellulose as a bio-based filler material. ⁴³

6. Starch based biopolymers (SBPs): Because of their reusability, biodegradability, abundance, availability, and affordability, starch-based biopolymers are drawing more attention. The affordability of starch makes it more alluring as one of the most promising biopolymers for creating edible films. ¹¹ SBPs are used in various industries, including textile, packaging, pharmaceutical, and biomedical applications.Starch-based coatings on fresh produce, such as fruits and vegetables, are becoming popular because they prevent flavor and moisture loss, delay ripening, and improve aesthetics. ¹¹ Tapioca starch, sourced from cassava plants, stands out as a preferred option for bioplastics due to its abundance, cost-effectiveness, as well as its neutral odor and color characteristics.^17,44 When considering the practical application of these sustainable packaging solutions, it is imperative to compare the water solubility and mechanical attributes of bioplastics against traditional plastic materials, especially in contexts such as food packaging. Li et al. (2022) investigated the development of starch-based edible films for food packaging applications, focusing on the enhancement of mechanical properties and barrier performance. ⁴⁵

7. Protein and lipid-based biopolymers: Different plant- and animal-based proteins, including wheat gluten, soy protein, whey protein, zein, casein, collagen, and gelatin, can be used to make bioplastics. ⁴² Due to their availability, biodegradability, nutritional value, and superior film production capabilities, proteins are frequently employed as packaging materials. ⁴⁶ Lipids have various benefits when used in edible films and coatings, including a glossy look, moisture absorption, and inexpensive production costs. Due to their non-polar nature, lipids are hydrophobic molecules that can slow the passage of moisture within food. As a result, the food sector has made strides in using lipids in edible and coated films for food product preservation. ⁴⁷ Researchers conducted a thorough investigation into the utilization of soy protein-based biopolymers as coatings for fresh produce packaging, highlighting their ability to extend shelf life and maintain product quality. ⁴⁸ Moreover, investigators explored the development of protein-based films and coatings for pharmaceutical packaging, emphasizing their biocompatibility and barrier properties essential for protecting pharmaceutical products from external factors. ⁴⁹ Also, it is examined that the application of whey protein-based biopolymers in active packaging systems, showcasing their potential to release antimicrobial agents to enhance food safety and shelf life. ⁵⁰ Chen et al. (2023) conducted a comprehensive study on the utilization of lipid-based biopolymers as coatings for food packaging, emphasizing their ability to enhance the barrier properties of packaging materials and extend the shelf life of perishable food products. ⁵¹

8. Polyhydroxy alkanoate: It is made of (R)-3-hydroxyalkanoic acid monomers, elastomeric or thermoplastic polyester that is produced naturally by a variety of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as intracellular energy and carbon storage molecules.It has the potential to be used as memory boosters, biodegradable implants, medicine carriers, tissue engineering, biocontrol agents, and agents against cancer and germs. Due to its biological characteristics and non-toxic behavior compared to traditional petrochemical polymers, which can be detrimental to humans and the environment, polyhydroxyalkanoate has received a lot of attention as biodegradable polyester.

9. Polybutylene succinate (PBS): It is a type of thermoplastic polyester that can be created from leftover food. PBS is used in biomedical applications, personal care products, biodegradable bags, and mulch film. It exhibits qualities that are comparable to those of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene (PP). Because to its biodegradability and low toxicity profile, PBS has generated a lot of attention in biomedical applications. Carbohydrates, protein, fat, and water make up the majority of food waste. Pretreatment with Ca (OH)₂ and NaOH could greatly enhance PBS production. ⁴⁹ Novel bioplastics based on polubutylene succinate can reduce pollution and slow food degradation, offering a sustainable alternative for food packaging. ⁵⁰ In one of the study, it is observed that JY49 is a potential bacterial strain that can accelerate the biodegradation of polybutylene succinate and other bioplastics, improving their biodegradation rate. ⁵¹ Slow release bioplastics fertilizer composites made from poly(butylenes succinate) and oil palm biomass shows promising biodegradation properties and can be used as a sustainable alternative to traditional fertilizers. ⁵⁰

10. Cellulose acetate (CA): It is a widely used natural polymer that has undergone chemical modification and is regarded as a semi-synthetic polymer. ⁵² Textile industries, plastic films, photography films, packaging, membranes in separation technologies, cigarette filter tows, and biomedical porous beads are just a few of the various industries where CA is used. The majority of CA is made from cellulose by acetylating certain hydroxyl groups, making it an environmentally favourable substance. ⁵³ The pulping of wood yields the majority of the cellulose that is used in products. It can be converted into a wide range of substances, including rayon and cellophane (regenerated cellulose), butyrate and acetate cellulose esters for use in molding, film, and fiber applications, and carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, and ethylcellulose cellulose ethers for use as gums. ⁵⁴ It was observed that cellolose acetate biofibers exhibits biodegradable and eco-friendly alternative for food packaging and biomedical applications. ⁵⁵ In one of the recent study, researchers produced high performance green bioplastics films with double-crosslinked cellulose nanofibres with good transmittance, high tensile strength and excellent thermal stability and water resistance making them a promising green alternative to traditional plastics. ⁵⁶ By combining glucaric acid with cellulose acetate fibres improves the mechanical strength, flexibility and sustainability in the textile industry. ⁵⁷

11. Bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET): Bio-PET is a semi-crystalline, colorless, transparent, and hygroscopic resin with exceptional physicochemical features. Even though it is not yet economically feasible to make all bio-PET, it is one of the most significant bioplastics since it is produced in part from renewable resources.Applications for bio-PET range from packaging to the creation of textiles. ⁵⁸ Currently, bio-polyethylene (Bio-PE) is made using first-generation ethanol generated from food crops like sugarcane.^59,60

Table 2.

A brief introduction of various types of bioplastics along with their sources, applications and advantages over plastics.

Bioplastics	Sources	Applications	Advantages over plastics
Polylactic acid (PLA)	Plant-based materials such as corn, sugarcane, cassava, sugar beet pupl and fermented plant starch	Medical devices, food packaging, 3D printing, textiles, automotive, personal protective equipment	Renewable resources, biodegradable, carbon footprint, compostable, mechanical strength, cost effective, sustainable
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate	Microorganisms, bacteria and mangrove ecosystems	Biomedical applications, food packaging	Biodegradability, renewable resources, non-toxic, physical properties, barrier performance
Polyamide II or nylon II	Fermented corn or sugar beets	Food packaging, clothing items	Biodegradability, mechanical strength, renewable resources, recyclability and reusability, versatility
Polyhydroxyurethane	Vegetable oils, sugars, starches, methane and waste water	Coatings and adhesives, sustainablr packaging materials, biocompatible medical devices, textiles and fibers	Biodegradability, low carbon footprint, energy efficiency, versatility
Cellulose- based biopolymers	Cotton linters and wood pulp	Packaging, textiles, agriculture, water treatment	Renewable resources, lower carbon footprint, biodegradability, energy efficiency, versatility, improved food safety
Protein and lipid-based biopolymers	Plant and animal-based proteins such as wheat gluten, soy protein, whey protein, zein, casein, collagen and gelatin	Food packaging, wound dressings and other biomedical uses	Shows better mechanical and tensile properties in the films
Polyhydroxy alkanoate	Microorganisms (bacteria, algae and fungi), renewable resources and agricultural by-products	Packaging, agriculture, textiles, medical and healthcare, toys and environmental remediation	Biodegradability, renewable resources, reduced carbon footprint, biocompatibility, barrier properties, hydrophobicity and mechanical flexibility
Cellulose acetate	Kapol fiber	Film base, eyeglass frames, coating component, synthetic fiber, wrapping	Biodegradability, low carbon footprint, energy efficiency, biocompatibility, chemical and thermal stability, low cost, transparency
Bio-based polyethylene terephthalate	Renewable raw materials such as ethanol from sugarcane and monothylene glycol from renewable plant resources	Make bottles for beverages, food packaging, coatings, textile fiber, PET barrels	Sustainability, biodegradability, recyclability, reduced waste, carbon neutrality

Table 3.

Compiled research reports on bioplastics applications.

Formula-tions	Polymers used	Method used	Outcomes	Ref
Film	Nano-calcium carbonated and polylactic acid	Solvent casting method	Temperature-dependent, thermal and mechanical properties were improved	28
Film	Polylactic acid, polyolefin elastomer, selenium nanoparticles and triethyl citrate		Food packaging	29
Bioblends	Polylactic acid, polystyrene	Melt mixing method	Food packaging	30
Films	Keratin extract, polylactic acid	Electrospinning method	Recyclable, bio-based, and ecologically friendly food packaging material	31
Blends	Polylactic acid, polycaprolactone and polybutylene succinate co-adipate	Molding process	Injection molding of the single dose strips	32
Nanofibres	Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)	Melt-compounding technique	Enhanced stiffness, strength and antibacterial activity and is a solution for food packaging	36
-	poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and clove	-	Biocompatible, biodegradable and active food packaging wrap	37
-	Polyhydroxyurethane	-	Packaging material and a sustainable material for storing and administering drugs	40
-	Polyhydroxyurethane	-	Sustainable packaging solutions for ensuring food safety and quality	41
Films	Starch-based biopolymers	-	Food packaging	45
Films and coatings	Protein-based	-	Fresh produced packaging material	49
Films	Soy protein based biopolymers	-	Pharmaceutical packaging	50
Coatings	Lipid-based biopolymers	-	Food packaging	51
Nanofibres	Cellulose acetate		Good transmittance, high tensile strength and excellent thermal stability and water resistance	52

Physicochemical properties bioplastics

The physicochemical properties may vary on the type of bioplastics, but some general characteristics are discussed below:

1. Mechanical properties: It includes tensile strength, elasticity, flexibility and hardness of specific bioplastics. Bioplastics have lower tensile strength in comparison to polyethylene or polypropylene. Starch based bioplastics are less flexible and more brittle where as bioplastics such as polyhydroxyalkonates exhibit better flexibility and elasticity. In case of hardness, polylactic acid is relatively hard while polyhydroxyxbutyrate tends to be more brittle. ⁶¹

2. Thermal Properties: Bioplastics generally have lower thermal properties compared to petroleum-based plastics. For instance, PLA, a common bioplastic, has a melting point of around 150–180°C and a glass transition temperature (Tg) of about 60°C, which limits its thermal resistance. This lower Tg means that bioplastics like PLA may soften or lose structural integrity at lower temperatures than conventional plastics. Additionally, bioplastics often exhibit lower thermal stability, meaning they can degrade or lose mechanical properties at elevated temperatures more readily than their petroleum-based counterparts.

3. Barrier properties: Bioplastics, particularly starch-based materials, tend to have high water permeability, which limits their effectiveness in packaging applications that require moisture barriers. Additionally, certain bioplastics like PLA have poor gas barrier properties, such as high oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability, making them less suitable for long-term food packaging where effective preservation of product quality is essential. ⁶²

4. Biodegradability and compostability: One of the key advantages of bioplastics is their biodegradability, allowing them to degrade naturally under specific environmental conditions. For example, PLA is compostable in industrial composting facilities, while other types like PHB can biodegrade in soil or marine environments. Additionally, some bioplastics, such as starch-based plastics, are fully compostable and can break down within months under the right conditions, helping to reduce their environmental impact.

5. Chemical resistance: Bioplastics generally exhibit lower chemical resistance compared to conventional plastics. For example, PLA can dissolve or degrade when exposed to certain solvents or high temperatures.

6. Optical properties: Some bioplastics, like PLA, offer transparency, making them ideal for applications such as food packaging where product visibility is important. In addition to being transparent, PLA also has a glossy appearance, which can be a desirable feature in packaging for its aesthetic appeal.

7. Density: Bioplastics tend to have lower densities compared to traditional plastics, which can affect their mechanical properties and processing behavior. For instance, PLA has a density of about 1.25 g/cm³.^63,64

Bioplastic market

Vantage industry Research states that an increasing emphasis on sustainability and environmental responsibility among consumers and businesses is driving the bioplastics industry, which is poised for significant expansion. In an effort to create a circular economy for plastics, this industry is set to see major advancements in the production of bioplastics as well as a rise in manufacturer-end-user partnerships. ⁶⁵ A key factor in the plastics industry’s shift from the traditional wasteful linear economy to the more ecologically conscious and sustainable circular economy is the use of bioplastics. Expanding the application of bioplastics has the potential to yield numerous positive effects, including economic, environmental, and functional advantages. ⁶⁶ Demand has increased since bioplastics have clearly shown themselves to be a viable product, leading customers to actively seek them out when making decisions. In 2023, after a few years of stasis, the world’s total production of plastic is beginning to increase once more. Sophisticated products and applications are emerging, and this is what is driving this progress. The ability to produce bioplastics worldwide is expected to rise dramatically, from 2.18 million tonnes in 2023 to 7.43 million tonnes in 2028. ⁶⁷ Figure 3 depicts the global production of various bioplastics in 2022 and in upcoming 2028 year.

Figure 3.

(a) Global production capacities of bioplastics (2023) (b) Global production capacities of bioplastics (2028).

Biodegradability and sustainability of bioplastics

The term “Biodegradability” refers to something that can break down effectively in a natural setting. Bioplastics have several advantages over fossil fuels, including a quicker rate of degradation, the creation of new recycling streams for plastic waste, a smaller footprint for waste management and a lower green house emission rate. ⁶⁸ According to the literature surveyed, using bioplastics will promote sustainability and national growth, reducing the amount of waste biomass and reducing the amount of greenhouse gases that are released into the atmosphere. ⁶⁹ Bioplastics have a resident time in natural habitats of 1 to 10 years, which makes it 100 to 1000 times less likely that they will harm living things than plastics that have a residence time of thousands of years. Policymakers are urged to amend current legislation and directives in order to promote the diffusion of bioplastics and combat plastic pollution in view of this. In this regard, the European Regulation on Fertilizers 2019/1009 and the Single Use Plastic Directive 2019/904 may both exempt biodegradable bioplastic products from the ban and the counting of inert components in organic fertilizers, respectively. ⁷⁰ A number of variables, such as the kind of material, the existence of additives, and the disposal circumstances, affect biodegradability of bioplastics For instance, biodegradability is higher for bioplastics made from biological sources like cellulose or starch than for those made from fossil fuels. Nevertheless, their biodegradability may be impacted by the usage of mixtures of various materials or the addition of additives. ⁷¹ Some advantages on sustainability of bioplastics are described in below section:

1. Reduction of environmental footprint: Pharmaceutical businesses are rapidly realizing the value of sustainable practices in terms of reducing their environmental footprint. They may lessen their impact on the environment by adopting bioplastics for their packaging.

2. Reducing Plastic Waste: Syringes, IV bags, packaging materials, and other single-use products are the main sources of plastic waste in healthcare facilities. Biodegradable bioplastics provide a remedy for this problem. They can naturally decompose when used for throwaway objects, preventing the buildup of persistent plastic waste in hospitals and landfills. Increasing Corporate Responsibility: Pharmacies frequently look for ways to show their dedication to corporate responsibility. Adopting biodegradable bioplastics as part of their packaging and product materials demonstrates their commitment to environmentally responsible business practices, which can improve their company’s reputation. ⁷²

3. Compliance with Regulations: Pharmaceutical companies using bioplastics can stay ahead of compliance requirements and avoid potential fines or reputational damage associated with unsustainable practices as governments and regulatory bodies around the world implement stricter regulations regarding plastic waste and sustainability.

4. Meeting Patient Expectations: As consumers become more aware of the environment, they may favour goods and medicines that are packaged using eco-friendly materials. In order to satisfy patient expectations and promote customer goodwill, biodegradable bioplastics can be used. ⁷³

Even though bioplastics have the potential to be more environmentally friendly than conventional plastics, there are a number of variables that affect both their biodegradability and overall environmental impact. To create bioplastics that are more sustainable and to enhance the end-of-life situations for these materials, more research is required. ⁷⁴

Challenges and limitations associated with bioplastics

As reviewed, it can be concluded that bioplastics have emerged as a compelling and environmentally responsible solution in the realm of pharmaceutical packaging, offering a paradigm shift in the industry’s approach to sustainability. Bioplastics can be engineered to possess characteristics like transparency, flexibility, moisture resistance, and compatibility with various drug formulations, ensuring that they meet the stringent requirements of the pharmaceutical industry. However, the adoption of bioplastics in pharmaceutical packaging is not without challenges. ⁷⁵ These include cost considerations, mechanical and barrier property limitations, and the need for careful consideration of the end-of-life management of biodegradable bioplastics. Moreover, regulatory standards and certifications for bioplastics in pharmaceutical applications require rigorous adherence to ensure product safety and efficacy.As a result, bioplastics require precise and standardized definitions, labeling, and certifications that enlighten producers and customers about their properties and advantages. In order to facilitate their collection, sorting, recycling, or composting as well as to stop contamination or leakage, bioplastics also require a sufficient infrastructure and processes. ⁷⁶ Policies and incentives that support the development and uptake of bioplastics while balancing their trade-offs with biodiversity, land use, and food security are also necessary.Innovation and collaboration are essential for overcoming these obstacles and realizing the full potential of bioplastics. The creation of novel and enhanced bioplastics that are more affordable, scalable, useful, and sustainable can be fueled by innovation. Utilizing digital tools to improve the traceability, quality, and efficiency of bioplastics, such as blockchain, artificial intelligence, or sensors, can also be considered innovative. Working together can help various sectors—including academic institutions, business, governments, civil society, and international organizations that support bioplastics—share best practices, resources, and expertise. Local populations that stand to gain from bioplastics, particularly women and young people, may also participate. ⁷⁷

Waste management options of bioplastics

In order to achieve a truly sustainable plastics economy, the increasing production of bioplastics must be accompanied by efficient end-of-life strategies for bioplastic waste, which is necessary for all bioplastics, regardless of their ability to decompose. ⁷⁸ While recycling biobased non-biodegradable bioplastics, such as bio-polyethylene terephthalate (bioPET), bio-polyethylene (bioPE), and biopolypropylene (bioPP), is an undeniable necessity, the situation is less clear for biodegradable bioplastics, for which biodegradation is frequently regarded as the only viable end-of-life option; however, biodegradation typically does not have the goal of recovering plastic materials or monomers to be reintroduced in the life cycle of plastic products, whereas this is precisely the goal of other types of recycling options.^79,80 The European directive on waste management states that waste management should follow a clear hierarchy that establishes a priority order for waste prevention and management laws and policies: prevention, reuse preparation, recycling, energy recovering and disposal (shown in Figure 4). ⁸¹ The steps for the disposal of bioplastics are discussed in below section and diagrammatically, overview of plastic decomposition is given in Figure 5.

1. Identification and sorting: The various plastic constituents that make up post-consumer garbage must be identified and sorted in order for the subsequent recycling processes to proceed.^82,83 To generate secondary materials that can compete in the market, strong and economical technologies that can ensure high quality and purity must be used to separate plastic trash.Two methods are available for completing the identification and sorting process: (i) manually using markers and labels, or (ii) automatically using methods based on density variations, optical systems (such near-infrared (NIR) techniques), fluorescent and colored dyes, or solvents. When sorting plastics manually, the operator must identify each one based on its shape, color, appearance, or trademark. This method is helpful when the size of the plastic components justifies the time and effort required, as it requires a lot of labor and precautions to keep the operator’s environment safe. ⁸⁴ The identification and separation of bioplastics may potentially benefit from the use of automatic sorting methods. For instance, using air classifiers or float-sink separation techniques with the right solvents, the densities of PLA (1.25e1.49 g/cm³), PHB (1.21e1.26 g/cm³), and polyolefins (<1 g/cm³) can be used to separate these compounds. ⁸⁵

2. Recycling: Recycling can be done via three methods i.e. mechanical recycling, chemical recycling and enzymatic and microbial recycling. The primary method for recovering plastic is known as mechanical recycling, which is the physical processing of waste. ⁸⁶ It is thought to be less costly than chemical recycling, involves very basic technology, and has a less environmental effect. Mechanical recycling is a process that involves multiple phases, including grinding, washing, drying, compounding/extrusion, and granulation. It begins with trash collection, screening, and manual or automatic sorting. The sequence and simultaneous execution of these stages may vary based on the dimensions, form, and makeup of the feed plastic trash.Chemical recycling, sometimes referred to as tertiary recycling, is a recycling process that is continuously expanding and involves turning waste materials into valuable chemicals, such as oligomers and/or monomers that may be reintroduced into the polymer value chain and utilized again for polymerization. Chemical recycling can be carried out by solvolysis (hydrolysis, alcoholysis) or dry-heat depolymerization (pyrolysis, etc.).^87–90 Enzymatic and microbial recycling is to recover monomers and other valuable compounds, biodegradable bioplastics that can be selectively and carefully broken down using enzyme and microbial depolymerization, two novel and potentially effective processes. This goal sets this process apart from disposal alternatives like biodegradation and composting and makes it a true recycling technology.^85,91

3. Composting: Utilizing plastic products that are biodegradable and compostable, like cutlery, bags, and packaging made of biowaste, can expand the alternatives available for handling those things after their useful life. ⁹² Apart from energy recovery and mechanical recycling, industrial composting, also known as organic recovery or organic recycling emerges as a viable solution for waste management. ⁹³ The regulated biological aerobic conversion of organic waste into CO₂, H₂O, heat, minerals, biomass, and humus that promotes plant development is known as composting. Microorganisms like fungus, yeasts, and bacteria cause this conversion to occur.Under composting circumstances, biodegradable plastics like TPS and PLA break down quickly, although biodegradable plastics may take longer to break down. Therefore, while not all biodegradable plastics are compostable, all compostable plastics are biodegradable.^94,95

4. Energy recovery:While recycling is higher on the waste management hierarchy, incinerating plastic and bioplastic waste with energy recovery can be helpful in getting rid of the entire non-recyclable and non-biodegradable plastic waste component and it is unquestionably better than landfilling. Because of their high calorific value, plastics can be utilized in waste-to-energy facilities to cut down on the usage of fossil fuels.^96,97

5. Landfill: Landfill disposal is by no means a suitable solution for wastes including bioplastics, neither for biodegradable nor for durable polymers. ⁹⁸ It must be noted up front that the final phase in the hierarchy of waste management techniques is landfilling, which is only appropriate for inert, non-reactive material.^99,100 In addition to having detrimental effects on the environment (such as emissions, land use, etc.), disposing of (Bio)polymers in landfills results in the loss of important secondary raw materials. Regretfully, mixed plastic trash is still disposed of in landfills in nations with inadequate WtE plant capacity. On the other hand, “landfill mining” is a method used in environmentally developed nations to recover energy from old plastic garbage that has been deposited.^101,102

Figure 4.

Various sources of bioplastics.

Figure 5.

A diagrammatic overview of plastics and bioplastics production.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the use of bioplastics in packaging holds immense potential to revolutionize the food and pharmaceutical industries by offering sustainable alternatives to conventional petroleum-based plastics. Leveraging cutting-edge technologies and renewable resources, bioplastics meet the stringent requirements of modern packaging while minimizing environmental impact. Global bioplastics production reached approximately 2.4 million tons in 2021, and this figure is expected to increase as industries transition toward sustainable materials. The packaging sector alone accounts for nearly 48% of total bioplastics consumption, reflecting the growing demand for eco-friendly solutions. Bioplastics’ adaptability, biodegradability, and compatibility with sensitive products make them an ideal choice for maintaining both environmental stewardship and product integrity. As sustainability becomes a priority across industries and consumer preferences increasingly favor environmentally friendly solutions, the rise of bioplastics signals a broader shift toward a more sustainable future.