Abstract
Sex work, encompassing the exchange of sexual services for material gain, presents a complex and sensitive research terrain, associated with stigma and entrenched debates within feminism. This evaluation's central objective was to engage in a community-based dialogue, eliciting perspectives from a diverse range of participants, including audience members, women with lived experience of sex work, users of addiction services, and expert commentators, in response to the themes explored in the play ‘Madame Geneva: A Tale of Gin and Prostitution’. This article delves into the study's findings, with a particular focus on the portrayal of sex work in contemporary Northern Irish society. The study demonstrates how the arts, particularly dramatic representations, serve as a potential catalyst for instigating essential and pragmatic policy discussions on issues that impact women and society at large. The findings shed light on the ongoing challenges faced by women in Northern Ireland within the context of sex work, revealing persistently high levels of oppression and discrimination. These issues often remain entangled within a male-dominated political discourse and structural frameworks, underscoring the urgent need for critical examination and reform.
Sex work, defined as the exchange of sex and/or sexual stimulation for material gains, remains a challenging issue to research due to surrounding stigma as well as polarizing views within feminist debate. The primary aim of the current evaluation was to seek the views of audience members, service users of addiction services and expert commentators regarding several key issues relating to the play ‘Madame Geneva: A Tale of Gin and Prostitution’, staged by Macha productions in June 2017. The use of the arts to examine social issues has always existed, but in recent years, theatre has become increasingly employed to assess audience perception and comprehension of significant social issues (Campbell et al., 2021). The play Madame Geneva focuses on the topic of sex work, while depicting the class and gender disparities prevalent in the eighteenth century. Alongside exploring themes like substance use and women's treatment in society, this article specifically explores the revelations about sex work presented in the performance.
Feminist social work, and feminist social work research, carries a specific dedication to gender-based social justice and working holistically across diverse communities (Mehrotra, 2010). This article understands that women are not a homogenous group with shared experiences (Harding, 2004). This research aimed to unpack some of the intricacies and subtleties of women's experiences and perspectives, recognizing the significance of intersecting forms of oppression beyond gender, including class and disability. This endeavour is crucial for the advancement of contemporary feminist scholarship and its practical applications. The article begins by providing contextual background information pertaining to community theatre and the play used, before turning attention to sex work in Northern Ireland (NI), engaging with key debates in the field.
Literature Review
Introducing Madame Geneva
Community theatre serves as a unique form of socio-political expression, where the voices of those directly affected by societal prejudices or challenges take centre stage (Premaratna, 2018). This impactful platform empowers members of the community to personify the roles and stories that bring attention to the stigmas, social challenges and hardships they confront (Boon and Plastow, 2004). An illustration of this transformative method can be observed in the compelling community play ‘Madame Geneva: A Tale of Gin and Prostitution’, produced by Macha Productions in Belfast. This lively production, set in eighteenth-century London, seamlessly weaves together professional and community actors, as well as various musical styles – from baroque to folk and contemporary – all converging in a shared narrative that unfolds around a shared bottle of gin.
In the production, ‘Madame Geneva’, the once popular name for gin (Dillon, 2002), comes to NI with the Dutch armies of William of Orange, almost immediately invoking a gloriously decadent atmosphere across the classes. Sold at the corner shop, Madame Geneva offers the poor – particularly women – easy-to-access alcohol. The government struggles to find a way to reap rewards from gin taxes while trying to stop the lower classes from imbibing. To this end, Madame Geneva's gin-addled image has been tied to fallen women, ‘fishwives’, and bad mothers.
Arguably, the moral narratives depicted have survived and underpin current approaches to women, poverty, social welfare policy and public health (Kent, 2016; Bloomer et al., 2017; Byrne et al., 2017; McGarry and FitzGerald, 2019). Working with trainee actors from some of NI's most deprived communities and playwright and producer Jo Egan, Macha Productions’ professional team premiered Madame Geneva at the Lyric Theatre in Belfast. It provoked awareness, debate and media coverage on the rising issues of sex work, stigma and addiction in NI's post-conflict society. This article will focus on the play's exploration of sex work.
Sex work has been practised throughout ancient and modern culture and its presence within each culture is somewhat an inevitability (Jenness, 1990). The archetypal eighteenth-century sex worker, as is depicted in the play Madame Geneva, was the cause of extreme social anxiety but also contained an air of female sexual freedom and libertinism wherein the male was often considered a victim at the hands of materialistic women (Strobel, 2017). In the last two decades, Maria Luddy's (2007) Prostitution and Irish Society 1800–1940, and Leanne McCormick's (2013) Regulating Sexuality: Women in Twentieth-Century Northern Ireland gave a voice to the complex relationship between Irish society and prostitution 1 . Through these works, the dynamics of punishment and reform in the moral landscape of Irish society is held in the bodies of sex workers who are viewed as dangers to society and sites of corruption. This stark contrast in perception becomes even more pronounced when considering the context of neighbouring regions.
Sex Work: The Northern Irish Context
When the UK introduced the ‘Sexual Offences Act 1956’, this officially legalized sex work for England, Wales and Scotland under certain restrictions. The updated ‘Sexual Offences Act 2003’ partly repealed the act of 1956 by prohibiting various related services, including soliciting publicly and owning or managing a brothel (House of Commons, 2016). In NI, sex work laws differ from those in the rest of the UK, as NI follows an abolitionist approach to sex work, criminalizing the purchase of sexual services. The ‘Swedish Model’ (see Holmström and Skilbrei, 2017) has inspired the NI executive's criminalization stance. In 2015, Maurice Morrow, a Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) peer, led a campaign to criminalize the buyers of sexual services in NI. The Human Trafficking and Exploitation Act (2015) he championed made purchasing sex punishable by fine or up to 1 year's imprisonment. Prior to the vote in Stormont (NI's site of devolved government institutions), Morrow expressed that his impetus for taking action was deeply rooted in his Christian faith and values (Northern Ireland Assembly, 2014: unpaginated). Notably, his party, the socially conservative DUP, maintains significant affiliations with the Free Presbyterian Church (Tonge et al., 2021).
In this context, the criminalization of sex work has led to the coming together of the Christian right and radical feminism in NI, forming a deliberate and particular alliance that some analysts view as unbalanced (Ellison, 2017; Ward and Wylie, 2017; Lepp and Gerasimov, 2019; McKenzie et al., 2019). Huschke argues this connection is exploited in NI to present repressive policies rooted in conservative Christian values under the guise of feminist discourse, rendering them more palatable. This affiliation, as noted by Ellison (2017), is disproportionately advantageous to the religious conservative side rather than to feminists or women collectively. The Swedish model has encountered widespread criticism from various quarters (Levy and Jakobsson, 2014; Vuolajärvi, 2019), including organizations such as the English Collective of Prostitutes (ECP), National Ugly Mugs and Amnesty International. Conversely, these organizations have advocated for the decriminalization of sex work as opposed to the abolitionist approach. They contend that criminalizing clients can result in adverse effects on the safety and well-being of sex workers.
The ‘Swedish’ approach, which has been taken in NI, might counterintuitively increase stigma for sex workers and drive sex work further into the shadows, amplifying risk for sex workers, diminishing their capacity to negotiate improved working conditions and impeding their access to vital support services (Vanwesenbeeck, 2017). Alternatively, organizations led by sex workers such as the ECP and the Sex Workers Alliance Ireland are proponents of sex worker rights and the acknowledgment of sex work as a valid occupation, aiming to diminish stigma.
Sex Work and Stigma
In this study, the term sex worker has been used to avoid invoking the stigma associated with the derogatory connotations of the label ‘prostitute’. This use of terminology is an effort to promote ownership over the individual's career choice and separate occupation from identity as the economic implications are made more prominent (Sanders et al., 2017). Weitzer (2009, p.1) explains sex work is recognized as ‘the exchange of sexual services, performances, or products for material compensation’. Terminology has the intention of empowerment and granting more agency to those offering sex-based services; however, sex workers still experience high levels of stigma (Tyler, 2020; Vanwesenbeeck, 2017). Sex workers have been discriminated against and stigmatized by the government, church communities, neighbours and family, in both the eighteenth century and in contemporary society (Wolffers and van Beelan, 2003; Whitaker et al., 2011; Sanders et al., 2017). Sex work stigma affects not only sex workers but also families, friends and neighbours. This phenomenon is due to what Goffman (2009, p.43) called ‘courtesy stigma’ as (p.30) ‘the tendency for a stigma to spread from the stigmatized individuals to his close connections’.
The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee Prostitution report (2016, p.3) estimates that there are approximately 72,800 sex workers in the UK with cis-gendered women making up 94%. The continued shame and stigma which is attached to those who are involved in sex work is evidenced by their reluctance to talk about their experiences and the subsequent paucity of research available in this area. The silence through stigma experienced by women in sex work is associated with a host of psychosocial vulnerabilities (Martin-Romo et al., 2023). Compounding this, multiple COVID-19 lockdowns in the UK have meant that sex workers have been without work and support schemes (Brouwers and Hermann, 2020; cf. Shareck et al., 2021). Faced with the stigma of their job role when applying for Universal Credit, the UK's social welfare program that combines various means-tested benefits, many have become desperate, choosing riskier work than previously (Cowey et al., 2022). Struggling to obtain basic necessities inevitably had effects on mental health, with increases in loneliness, stress and anxiety (Cowey et al., 2022). According to Fitzpatrick (2021), more people are turning to sex work, and it is likely that this trend will continue as a result of the ongoing ‘cost of living crisis’.
Sex Work and Social Work
It is imperative for social work practitioners to grasp the intricate and developing discussions encircling sex work, along with a comprehension of the stigma and susceptibilities encountered by individuals involved in sex work. Engaging with these discussions enables practitioners to better comprehend the multifaceted perspectives and tensions surrounding issues like sex work and its regulation (Wahab and Panichelli, 2013). This comprehension, in turn, equips social workers to provide informed, sensitive and effective support to individuals involved in the industry, taking into account the changing dynamics and potential impacts of various approaches on their well-being and rights (Sloan and Wahab, 2000).
There is limited research on sex work and social work, particularly in the Northern Irish context and thus it can be helpful to examine international perspectives on what is an international profession. Albert and Wege (2022), writing from a German context, explain that as women who work within sex work experience prejudice, discrimination and legal disadvantage they are likely to come into contact with social workers, for example through low-threshold services. In light of this, Albert and Wege (2022) describe that social work has a long tradition of supporting sex workers, advocating for their rights and dignity. More critically, Welch and Zhao (2023, unpaginated) argue that in the U.S. social work has ‘contributed to the transformation of “prostitution” from an issue of sex workers’ rights to a psychological, criminal legal, and medical phenomenon’ which has worsened the stigma sex workers experience. The act of medicalising sex work by social workers is fundamentally paternalistic, interlinked with social workers’ interpretation of purchasing sex as a societal challenge (Grönvall, 2022), an outlook that sex workers have contested (Levy and Jakobsson, 2014). Moreover, Welch and Zhao (2022) argue that common themes across social work interventions with sex workers include power and control and punitive service provision. This form of social work intervention conflicts with social justice, however, this social work value is vaguely defined and subsequently risks being ‘easily incorporated into diverse and problematic political orientations’ (Welch and Zhao, 2023, p. 206).
Sloan and Wahab (2000, p. 476) similarly explored the historical relationship between social work and sex workers, concluding crucially that social workers must, ‘acknowledge the continuum of experience within the sex trade and develop a policy that both eliminates victimization and exploitation and supports the individual's right to autonomy and self-determination’. This belief is upheld by the researchers of the present study and is the foundations for the project: to utilize the medium of community theatre, upholding our social work values of working anti-oppressively and seeking social justice to examine contemporary views of sex workers in a Northern Irish context.
Social Impacts of Community Theatre
Due to the absence of complete social acceptance of sex work in society, the reality that sex workers endure discrimination and stigma, as well as the ongoing threat of such stigma, a community theatre strategy was chosen for the current study. Community theatre can be employed as a vehicle for individual empowerment, societal advancement and the promotion of concepts like gender equality, human rights, and democracy (Campbell et al., 2021). Most community theatre methods have been developed based on the philosophy of Paulo Freire's (1970) approach of critical pedagogy in theatre and implementation techniques deriving from Augusto Boal's (2008) Theatre of the Oppressed. Freire's (1970) approach, attempted to stimulate social change by encouraging the audience to build capacities for critical thinking through participation in active dialogue. As community theatre concentrates on raising current problems of a particular community, it brings the participants into the socio-political arena and takes a critical position regarding social issues (Prentki, 2013) whereby it aims to alleviate social conflicts and frustration (Van Erven, 2001).
Utilizing the Arts as a tool to explore significant social concerns can enhance dialogue and improve quality of life especially for groups that are disenfranchized, excluded and constrained (Bourriaud, 2002). Theatre offers a creative method to encourage audience members to engage with certain subjects, such as sex work. A body of literature is emerging to address practical questions as to what applied theatre is and how to respond with appropriate methodologies to address the questions posed (Thompson, 2013; Prentki, 2013; Nicholson, 2014). An emerging theme is, the impact of applied theatre should influence and cause a measurable change beyond the immediate beneficiaries of a project, supporting audience members and those participating to feel less oppressed and more empowered (Boal, 2008; Prentki and Preston, 2008; Taylor, 2003; Sullivan, 2014). Despite a universal acceptance within commerce and government that there are positive social impacts because of the arts, there is little robust empirical evidence to prove this (Landry et al., 1993, Matarasso, 1997; Jermyn, 2001; Reeves, 2002; Knowles and Cole, 2008). Through its novel use of community theatre, this article intends to contribute to such debate, to explore sex work, a topic often shrouded with stigma.
Methods
The research methodology utilized an exploratory qualitative design (Sarantakos, 2010). There were four post-show discussions with panellists, women who engaged in sex work and women who researched the subject (n = 9), and audience members (n = 71 over four evenings). In addition, there was a focus group (FG) (with six service users who had attended a performance of the play). The FG participants and discussion panellists (DPs) in the post-show discussion were selected using a purposive sample technique (Sarantakos, 2010) and both are detailed further in the subsequent section.
While feminists employ a variety of research techniques, according to Olesen (2005, p. 236), feminist qualitative research can be characterized by three factors. In this study, the three qualities identified by Olesen (2005, p. 236) influenced the research design: (i) ‘[the work] problematizes women's diverse situations as well as the gendered institutions and material and historical structures that frame those’; (ii) ‘It refers the examination of that problematic to theoretical, policy, or action frameworks to realize social justice for women (and men) in specific contexts (Eichler, 1986, p. 68; Eichler, 1997, pp. 12–13’ quoted in Olesen, 2005, p. 236); and (iii) ‘It generates new ideas to produce knowledge about oppressive situations for women, for action or further research’ (Olesen, 2005, p. 236).
Both the FG and post-show discussion were led by a member of the research team and followed an open-ended topic guide. The first question post-play was, ‘Would anyone like to share their first thoughts?’ This open-ended style of question led to conversational dialogue among participants. The facilitator had a topic guide to ensure the topics of sex work, stigma, welfare reform and substance use, were all addressed. Final closing questions asked were, ‘is a play a good method of raising awareness of the stigma and oppression faced by women? Is it a useful tool for raising awareness?’ In addition, FG participants were asked about their experiences of stigma and oppression in relation to sex work, alcohol use and their understanding of the ethical implications of welfare reform.
Focus Group with Service Users
Six women were identified through a local NI drug and alcohol service user network (RSUN). Female (RSUN) staff members contacted the participants, explained the study, and provided the project information sheet (PIS) – which detailed the voluntary nature of their involvement. Subsequently, the lead researcher contacted potential participants after 1 week to obtain their consent to participate in the research. The FG was convened in the theatre where the play was performed, and it was held immediately after a matinee performance. The FG guide included questions on how participants viewed the play's themes and how they resonated in the current cultural climate.
Post-show Discussion with Panel Guests and Audience Members
Four post-show discussions were convened immediately after the performance of the play. Post-show discussion questions focused on four topic areas: sex work, substance use, media portrayals and the two-child limit to social security benefits (see Patrick and Andersen, 2023). The panel facilitator introduced the themes as subjects for discussion. However, the conversation was not conducted in a directive manner to promote organic discussion from the audience.
The DPs came from a range of backgrounds. To protect the identity of at least two of the women, we do not wish to reveal the exact nature of all the roles/professions that were represented in the panel. However, we can state that two were academics who are involved in women's rights and community theatre, two work with women in their respective communities and others included women with direct experience of sex work and substance use. As the topics covered included substance use, sex work and stigma, all panellists were actively involved in the discussion.
A set of questions were used during each of the post-show discussion to ensure a level of consistency. Before each performance, participants were provided with a PIS and consent forms and the research process was also described verbally by a researcher. After each performance, participants were once again invited to remain for the purpose of discussion, and signed consent forms were collected before the discussion commenced.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval was granted by Queen's University Belfast in May 2017. Research participants were informed that the data they provided would be anonymised and that they would not be identified. The information from the discussion forums and FG were collected using audio recorders, and data was immediately transferred to a secure, password-protected file. All data was encrypted and stored securely on university premises.
As the themes of the play had potential to cause upset for research participants, all were provided with a named person (a British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy registered counsellor) who was available to talk with them after the show, at the theatre, on an individual basis if immediate assistance was requested. Furthermore, participants and audience members were provided with a list of relevant support organizations and telephone numbers and were advised to seek help from their general practitioner if necessary, after the FG discussion and/or performance.
Data Analysis
Data from the FG and post-show discussions were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. Utilizing the NVivo software tool (V.11), qualitative data analysis was carried out using both thematic and narrative approaches (Lewis-Beck et al., 2004). In the combined approach, researchers identified primary themes in the data (thematic analysis) and subsequently explored the narratives that contributed to or augmented those themes (narrative analysis). This integrative approach facilitated a deeper exploration of the data, capturing both the broader patterns and the individual stories that enrich understanding. Our approach, influenced by other feminist social work research (see Gringeri et al., 2010) aimed at maintaining reflexivity during our engagement with the data. The intention of this was to preserve participants’ insights, rather than rigidly adhering to established rules that may restrict trustworthiness and authenticity (Ronkainen et al., 2016). Two data coders systematically identified emerging themes and subthemes from the data, and a third research team member independently verified these for inter-coder reliability, ensuring methodological rigour (Sanders and Cuneo, 2010).
Positionality
Macha Productions, in its capacity as a company, maintains a core objective of ‘democratising cultural expression’. Through the medium of theatre, their mission is to amplify the voices of marginalized communities and women. Leading the current research in collaboration with this theatre company Anne Campbell is a feminist social work researcher from NI. Their research pursuits encompass the realms of women and sex work, substance use, as well as the examination of women's positioning within a society steeped in patriarchy and structural oppression. The research team includes a mix of expertise: a BACP-accredited counsellor, an early-career social work researcher and two members specialized in research methodologies (one in Creative Arts, the other in Theology). Their goal was to forge innovative and efficacious approaches by combining their diverse skills.
Results
‘Stigma is what keeps it all unsafe’: Northern Irish Sex Work Policies
Initially, the post-show discussion focused on how women were denigrated and stigmatized historically due to their involvement in sex work or if they had specific complex issues of mental health and addictions problems. A DP commented, ‘…I think a lot of what the play demonstrates is how women are still vilified, even historically, if they have taken part in sex work or have had mental health issues and addiction’.
Similarities were observed between contemporary attitudes towards sex workers and those in the mid-eighteenth century, particularly in terms of the reasons for support and the lack of autonomy and choice experienced by women engaged in sex work. …it's interesting to watch the debates that played out in the play, because they’re exactly the same as the ones that go on now. You could go through what they all are right now in terms of contemporary policymaking… whatever the context was, [character in the play is] exercising a choice and when you criminalise that choice, you take away the bit of autonomy that women have, even when they’re in very difficult circumstances. (DP)
I think the play highlighted that women are the fabric of society and if women become addicted or their morals are seen as loose, then the patriarchal society falls apart and we’re living in a world of madness and anarchy, which clearly isn’t the case. I think plays like this need to challenge or maybe encourage people to actually look at the policies, especially what's going on in Stormont, [NI government]. Again, men deciding women's destinies is, in my view, completely wrong. (DP)
This view was corroborated by another discussion panel member who stressed that male-dominated government committees were essentially making major policy decisions about critical issues concerning the welfare of women, again a situation which is reminiscent of male centric eighteenth-century political structures and discourses.
…when Lord Morrow's bill to criminalise the purchase of sex was going through… By the end of the bill going through, that was an all-male Stormont [NI government] committee. It was the only one that was all-male. …So, the focus on the men in the play talking about the women, that has not changed. (DP)
The discussion centred on similarities between the stigmatization of women in the eighteenth Century and women in contemporary society. Stigma which was perceived as central to how society views sex working in the twenty-first century an audience member commented, ‘(s)tigma is the biggest risk, really, to anybody in that situation, because stigma is what keeps it all unsafe, unregulated, in the shadows, as someone said earlier’.
One panel member viewed stigma as being a result of the inherent links between state and religion in NI. I think that our situation in NI is particularly unique because of the marriage of church and state. So, I think we have a big battle on our hands there where stigma is intrinsic in nature from policy, from the government down to grassroots. Women really need to be more involved from the top. The only way for change is for women to be more included. (DP)
You saw this in Stormont [NI government] whenever the justice committee were hearing evidence from sex workers. Any woman who fitted their narrative of a former sex worker who was very pro-criminalization was treated with the utmost respect, and any sex worker who gave evidence who didn’t hold that view and was still in sex work, or who had exited sex work but didn’t see criminalization as the answer, was treated with disdain… (DP)
The need for more debate and contextualization was apparent from the discussion, in that the media can be used as a positive tool for raising awareness. However, it was apparent that panellists were advocating a need for a stronger feminist voice in debates on social media. One audience member endorsed the necessity for discussions on the topics for discussion engendered by the play Madame Geneva, ‘and it was the discussion that comes afterwards I think is the important thing.’
The discussion underscored the importance of giving everyone a voice and acknowledged the current absence of an inclusive platform for expression at the Stormont Executive. Forming a society based on mutual empowerment and promoting positive education was significantly interrelated to the importance of role-modelling and reducing stigma. One panellist affirmed: …to be able to raise issues and to say, whatever your gender, whatever your background, whatever your age, whatever your level of education, what you have to say within this room is important and we’re all going to listen to each other, you know. (DP)
‘There are tensions’: Feminist Perspectives on Sex Work
During the post-show discussion, there was a very insightful and informative debate in relation to feminism and sex work – in which audience members made reference to some of the many and varied schools of thought in relation to this, and how they have evolved over the last few decades. Firstly, there was the view that some areas of feminist thinking did not fully appreciate the multifaceted and highly nuanced world of sex work. Indeed, audience members agreed that some perspectives served to engender more stigma, while other feminist ideologies focused on the empowerment of women and the recognition of women's autonomy and self-determination as a sex worker. One DP explained: Where I’m coming from is that there are feminist organisations that don’t help. I was reflecting on this watching the play. I think sometimes what we can do as women with an issue like this is look at it through the lens of our own lives, and sacrifice the real, lived experience of women who are doing sex work. We have an ideology that it can’t be good for women overall and if you believe in gender equality, surely no one should ever want to pay for sex. If you’re more intent on focusing on this feminist utopia you’d like to see, but not actually building that based on the lived experience of the most marginalised women and the most stigmatised women, then I can’t get behind that kind of feminism, to be honest. (DP) …feminism has a bit of a problem when it comes to sex work. There are tensions, in that some of the work that feminists have tried to do in shaping policy has been incredibly harmful and further stigmatised sex workers. The other side of that coin is that a lot of young feminists are in the groups that are coming through now that are based on intersectionality, which is about not doing something that only benefits other women who are like you, but actually takes into account the diversity of women's lives and respects women's rights. (DP)
Furthermore, there was a consideration of what feminists of previous generations might think about some aspects of the feminist agenda within in today's misogynistic and patriarchal hegemony. This led to discussion in relation to the danger of pathologizing women who are involved in sex work and neglecting to focus on the part that males play in the interaction.
When you’re talking here, you focus on the female sex worker a lot, but I found myself throughout the creation [play] thinking constantly of the male objectifying everything to satisfy his needs… We just keep focusing on women and the rights of what women want to do with their bodies and the rights of sex workers, but nobody, for me, is ever questioning [men]… (AM)
One service user from the FGs commented on how society places importance on trying to ‘fix’ women and focus on preventing them from being engaged in sex work.
…how it was about how we fix women and stop women doing this, it was a manmade problem that caused women to be that way and then they’re having to face the downfall. There was no talk about how we re-educate men not to go to prostitutes or to stay away from this, it was all solely the woman's fault. (FG)
The participant posed a question concerning what support could be made available for women from socioeconomically disadvantaged areas who wanted alternative job opportunities. Similarly, an audience member underlined that choices for women should be provided outside of sex work.
I was wondering what help there might be for women who may not think of sex work as a choice? It was expressed in the play, ‘OK, it's either sex work or starvation.’ When you have children to look after, whatever decade you’re living in, it's something they need to do. (AM)
One panel member stressed that there were several reasons why women chose sex work as a job, including financial motivation and personal career preference. Another expressed their perspective that economic gain was one of the primary reasons for engaging in sex work, particularly in terms of financial return for equivalencies in work hours.
If somebody said, ‘Ok, scrub all this floor for ten hours on your hands and knees and you’ll get £50 or perform this sex act and you will get £50 and it's going to take you 15 min’, if you weighed that up, to a lot of people… it makes sense. To be honest, I think I would like to see feminist-run brothels, women looking after women and empowering women and taking the men out of the equation, totally. (DP)
The role of Madame Geneva was also discussed, and the playwright was commended by both audience members and the panel for her portrayal of such an influential, unbridled female figure. The hyperbolic depiction of Madame Geneva, embodying the sensual nature of a fearless woman was discussed. The subsequent impact on this figure had on the audience was articulated by one audience member.
I just loved her… I mean my interpretation of Madame Geneva was that, that free spirited person, you know, in all of us and that she was bold, she was authentic and just so full of integrity, you know, so I would like to congratulate you [the playwright] for the character of her being the voice of women. (AM)
Discussion
The findings revealed two pivotal themes, Northern Irish Sex Work Policies and Feminist Perspectives on Sex Work, which yielded numerous noteworthy points and underscored the influence of ‘Madame Geneva's’ performance on the audience. The issues raised reiterated that women still experience high levels of oppression and discrimination in many areas, including sex work, which are often couched within male-dominated political discourses and structures in contemporary society. Panel members, audience participants and FG respondents reported that common themes related to sex work in the mid-eighteenth century are mirrored in contemporary society. These include issues such as the lack of female autonomy and choice and the persistent dogmatic beliefs associated with patriarchal views on sex work. Acknowledging these historical similarities, it becomes clear that social work can play a vital role in tackling these persistent issues and championing the empowerment and self-determination of sex workers in the contemporary era.
It was clear that there was a difference of opinion in the post-show discussion with audience members and DPs, which reflects the many and varied feminist schools of thought, in relation to understanding the nature of sex work and particularly a woman's right to choose this work pathway. Some referred to an abolitionist feminist view that was firmly opposed to what they saw as the oppression of women who were involved in sex work. Some believed that this perspective could potentially exacerbate the stigma and discrimination faced by sex workers, while others emphasized the importance of empowering women to make their own choices, with the primary concern being the safety of women engaged in the sex work industry. A prevalent perspective highlighted during the post-show discussion was the influence of male-dominated political structures in making crucial decisions on behalf of women regarding their needs, rights, wishes and welfare. This underscores a crucial avenue where social workers should actively champion the rights, safety and autonomy of marginalized women, including sex workers.
Through the discussion, it was evident that male political leaders who are involved in writing policies, such as Lord Morrow who introduced the Human Trafficking and Exploitation Bill 2015 to NI, precipitated strong negative emotions in both panellists and audience members. There was a critical consensus that men should consider the importance of their decision making when shaping policies, and subsequently, the lives of women. The discussion also highlighted the increased risk of women falling into poverty due to recent welfare reform changes, specifically the removal of tax credits for third children starting in April 2017. Research by Andersen and Patrick (2023) confirmed that these concerns materialized and contributed to the escalating child poverty rates in the 2010s. There was discussion on the blame and stigma which is often apportioned to individuals and families within lower resource groups, to justify such policies, and there was a degree of outrage at the burden of responsibility that was placed on vulnerable people. Such policies disproportionately impact social work service users, and the British Association of Social Workers (BASW, 2023) has urged the government to eliminate such policies as part of its anti-poverty campaign.
The play was praised by panel members and audience participants as a vehicle for raising important issues around sex work as well as other important topics, for example: addiction, feminism and welfare reform. The work of Jo Egan and the performance of ‘Madame Geneva: A Tale of Gin and Prostitution’ was also lauded as an excellent ‘standalone piece of Art’ (AM) as well as a means for discussing the issues highlighted above. The impact of the arts as a medium for raising awareness was viewed positively and one panellist suggested that it ‘amplifies voice’ (DP) and helps to frame the oppression of women not only in the eighteenth century but also in contemporary society. This underscores the capacity of social work research to employ artistic forms, such as community theatre, to investigate and illuminate societal issues.
Key Implications & Contributions
While societal attitudes towards women have changed since the 1800s, it is nevertheless clear that we still cling to some archaic ideas about how society views women. The play ‘Madame Geneva: A Tale of Gin and Prostitution’ provided an opportunity for contemplation and dialogue on how, for specific segments of the female population, discriminatory attitudes can be amplified. Within the play the character Madame Geneva engaged in sex work, and during post-show discussions and the FG, a consensus emerged that in a contemporary Northern Irish context woman participating in the sex work industry face continue to face multifaceted and intricate forms of oppression, encompassing personal, communal and societal spheres. It is hoped that this study will be used as a foundation for further analysis of the core issues which have been emphasized as the result of the performance of this seminal work.
Drawing from findings in this study, it is evident that social workers can play a pivotal role in reshaping social work policy and practice by refraining from the application of criminalizing and pathologizing attitudes towards sex workers, such as those raised in the post-show discussion and in the FG. However, this aspiration is posited while also recognizing the increasing burden and pressure of the social work role (Jordan, 2022). This study demonstrates a need for more data collection in the area of public health and women and sex work, an area which has a paucity of research in NI and the UK in general.
The performance of Madame Geneva was lauded as an excellent ‘standalone piece of art’ while also serving as a platform for discussing the aforementioned issues. It was also highlighted that the arts should be made more available to groups of people who suffer multiple oppressions and disadvantages. Beyond its impact on individuals and marginalized communities, Madame Geneva, and similar theatre productions, also have the potential to offer valuable insights and support to professionals, including social workers, who often navigate complex and emotionally charged situations. Community theatre can provide a platform for professionals to connect with their own emotions and personal experiences when dealing with the enduring and challenging cultural legacies, in this context arising from the Northern Irish conflict. In doing so, theatre can foster a deeper understanding and empathy that could inform professional work and interactions, ultimately contributing to more effective and compassionate service provision. This is an important avenue for future research.
The lack of long-term funding in creative research pedagogies was seen as ultimately preventing longitudinal research and data capture for this theatre-based intervention. A renewable funding stream would permit this and subsequently support the leverage of further funding. Realistically, however, this requires better funding from the Government on a long-term basis and rather than the current trend of short-term funded projects which could be viewed as a tokenistic nod to the arts as a possible vehicle for change. A potential avenue for further discussion and debate could incorporate how we measure the impact of theatre productions at the individual, familial, community and societal/structural levels. Considering the findings from the study and the impact of the play Madame Geneva, it is essential, at a policy level, to scrutinize the mechanisms for bridging the gap between individuals’ narratives and decision-makers, such as politicians and civil servants who hold power via funding to maintain active collaborations and to achieve positive results within communities.
This study's strength lies in its exploration of the highly relevant and sensitive topic of sex work, which is often stigmatized and divisive. It employs a multifaceted approach, engaging audience members, experts with personal experience and expert commentators, along with an interdisciplinary framework that incorporates feminist perspectives and artistic elements to scrutinize social issues. However, a potential limitation is its temporal relevance, as the research is grounded in a specific play performed in 2017. Given the evolving nature of societal attitudes, the findings may have limited applicability in a contemporary context. Nevertheless, this research encourages us to explore innovative approaches to addressing sensitive subjects, contributing to the democratization of theatre and fostering inclusive dialogue.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Wellcome.
