The present study focuses on the nature and extent of groundwater nitrate contamination, especially in the agroecosystems. This comprehensive review also examines the detection methods, pollution mechanisms, and policy implications. Therefore, the study reveals novel findings based on the Scopus database of 168 articles from 1991 to 2023. The bibliometric analysis using “VOSviewer” unfolds progress in nitrate investigation in terms of keyword occurrence, leading journals, and leading authors in the concerned field. Additionally, methods for detecting nitrate through electrochemistry, electricity, and spectroscopy are discussed. Taking all into account, this study concludes that field-effect transistor (FET) sensors are the best option out of the sensors covered. Various methods, including HYDRUS-1D and 2D, MODFLOW and MT3DMS, RT3D, and PHT3D can be used to assess the different sources responsible for nitrate contamination in groundwater. Nitrate may be removed from groundwater using one of two techniques-reduction or separation. Several novel approaches are presented, and the utilization of these technologies for nitrate removal is discussed in this study. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of each approach are evaluated critically. Finally, in light of our growing understanding of the problem, some suggestions are provided.
AbascalEGómez-ComaLOrtizI, et al. (2022) Global diagnosis of nitrate pollution in groundwater and review of removal technologies. The Science of the Total Environment810: 152233.
2.
AbuMZangoMSNunooS, et al. (2023) Groundwater characterization including prediction of the quality, fluoride, and nitrate occurrence in a typical artisanal mining area in Ghana: a hydrochemical and multivariate statistical approach. Groundwater for Sustainable Development23: 101041.
3.
Abu-AlnaeemMFYusoffINgTF, et al. (2018) Assessment of groundwater salinity and quality in Gaza coastal aquifer, Gaza Strip, Palestine: an integrated statistical, geostatistical and hydrogeochemical approaches study. The Science of the Total Environment615: 972–989.
4.
AdhikaryPPDashCJChandrasekharanH, et al. (2012) Evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigation and drinking using GIS and geostatistics in a peri-urban area of Delhi, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences5: 1423–1434.
5.
AkhavanSAbedi-KoupaiJMousaviSF, et al. (2010) Application of SWAT model to investigate nitrate leaching in Hamadan–Bahar Watershed, Iran. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment139(4): 675–688.
6.
AkoteyonISOmotayoAOSoladoyeO, et al. (2011) Determination of water quality index and suitability of urban river for municipal water supply in Lagos-Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research54(2): 263–271.
7.
AladejanaJAKalinRMSentenacP, et al. (2020) Assessing the impact of climate change on groundwater quality of the shallow coastal aquifer of eastern Dahomey basin, southwestern Nigeria. Water12(1): 224.
8.
AlahiMEEMukhopadhyaySC (2018) Detection methods of nitrate in water: a review. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical280: 210–221.
9.
AliMEEl-AassarAHM (2018) The potential of nitrate removal from groundwater of Bani-Suif west area, Egypt using nanocomposite reverse osmosis membranes. Journal of Basic and Environmental Sciences5(3): 230–239.
10.
AliMAHongWOrenS, et al. (2016) Tunable bioelectrodes with wrinkled-ridged graphene oxide surfaces for electrochemical nitrate sensors. RSC Advances6(71): 67184–67195.
11.
AliMAJiangHMahalNK, et al. (2017) Microfluidic impedimetric sensor for soil nitrate detection using graphene oxide and conductive nanofibers enabled sensing interface. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical239: 1289–1299.
12.
AliMAWangXChenY, et al. (2019) Continuous monitoring of soil nitrate using a miniature sensor with poly (3-octyl-thiophene) and molybdenum disulfide nanocomposite. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces11(32): 29195–29206.
13.
AliaskariMSchäferAI (2021) Nitrate, arsenic and fluoride removal by electrodialysis from brackish groundwater. Water Research190: 116683.
14.
AlmasriMN (2007) Nitrate contamination of groundwater: a conceptual management framework. Environmental Impact Assessment Review27(3): 220–242.
15.
AlslaibiTMAbunadaZAbu AmrSS, et al. (2018) Risk assessment of nitrate transport through subsurface layers and groundwater using experimental and modeling approach. Environmental Technology39(21): 2691–2702.
16.
AmaliRKALimHNIbrahimI, et al. (2021) Significance of nanomaterials in electrochemical sensors for nitrate detection: a review. Trends in Environmental Analytical Chemistry31: e00135.
17.
AmertharajSHasnatMAMohamedN (2014) Electroreduction of nitrate ions at a platinum-copper electrode in an alkaline medium: influence of sodium inositol phytate. Electrochimica Acta136: 557–564.
18.
AnaneMSelmiYLimamA, et al. (2014) Does irrigation with reclaimed water significantly pollute shallow aquifer with nitrate and salinity? An assay in a Perurban area in North Tunisia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment186: 4367–4390.
19.
AndreoliEAnnibaldiVRooneyDA, et al. (2011) Electrochemical conversion of copper‐based hierarchical micro/nanostructures to copper metal nanoparticles and their testing in nitrate sensing. Electroanalysis23(9): 2164–2173.
20.
AtmehMAlcock-EarleyBE (2011) A conducting polymer/Ag nanoparticle composite as a nitrate sensor. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry41: 1341–1347.
21.
AwomesoJAAhmadSMTaiwoAM (2020) Multivariate assessment of groundwater quality in the basement rocks of Osun State, Southwest, Nigeria. Environmental Earth Sciences79: 1–9.
22.
BabikerISMohamedMATeraoH, et al. (2004) Assessment of groundwater contamination by nitrate leaching from intensive vegetable cultivation using geographical information system. Environment International29(8): 1009–1017.
23.
BalandinAAGhoshSBaoW, et al. (2008) Superior thermal conductivity of single-layer graphene. Nano Letters8(3): 902–907.
24.
BhatnagarASillanpääM (2011) A review of emerging adsorbents for nitrate removal from water. Chemical Engineering Journal168(2): 493–504.
25.
BöhlkeJKWantyRTuttleM, et al. (2002) Denitrification in the recharge area and discharge area of a transient agricultural nitrate plume in a glacial outwash sand aquifer, Minnesota. Water Resources Research38(7): 10–11.
26.
BoudjanaYBrouyèreSJaminP, et al. (2019) Understanding groundwater mineralization changes of a Belgian chalky aquifer in the presence of 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane degradation reactions. Water11(10): 2009.
27.
CanFOzonerSKErgenekonP, et al. (2012) Amperometric nitrate biosensor based on Carbon nanotube/Polypyrrole/Nitrate reductase biofilm electrode. Materials Science and Engineering: C32(1): 18–23.
28.
ChandrajithRDiyabalanageSPremathilakeKM, et al. (2016) Controls of evaporative irrigation return flows in comparison to seawater intrusion in coastal karstic aquifers in northern Sri Lanka: evidence from solutes and stable isotopes. The Science of the Total Environment548: 421–428.
29.
CharizopoulosNZaganaEPsilovikosA (2018) Assessment of natural and anthropogenic impacts in groundwater, utilizing multivariate statistical analysis and inverse distance weighted interpolation modeling: the case of a Scopia basin (Central Greece). Environmental Earth Sciences77: 1–18.
30.
ChenDJMacQuarrieKT (2004) Numerical simulation of organic carbon, nitrate, and nitrogen isotope behavior during denitrification in a riparian zone. Journal of Hydrology293(1-4): 235–254.
31.
ChenCZLvXFLiJY, et al. (2012) Arabidopsis NRT1. 5 is another essential component in the regulation of nitrate reallocation and stress tolerance. Plant Physiology159(4): 1582–1590.
32.
ChuYHeBHeJ, et al. (2024) Revealing the drivers and genesis of NO3-N pollution classification in shallow groundwater of the Shaying River Basin by explainable machine learning and pathway analysis method. The Science of the Total Environment918: 170742.
33.
ClementTPJohnsonCD (2012) RT3D: reactive transport in 3-dimensions. In: Groundwater Reactive Transport Models. Sharjah: Bentham Science Publishers, 96–111.
34.
CuiRZhangDHuW, et al. (2023) Nitrogen in soil, manure and sewage has become a major challenge in controlling nitrate pollution in groundwater around plateau lakes, Southwest China. Journal of Hydrology620: 129541.
35.
CuiRChenAHuW, et al. (2024) Appropriate stoichiometric ratios of dissolved organic carbon and nitrate can trigger a transition in nitrate removal in groundwater around plateau lakes, Southwest China. The Science of the Total Environment916: 170313.
36.
da Silva PeixotoFCavalcante IN, Gomes DF et al. (2020) Influence of land use and sanitation issues on water quality of an urban aquifer. Water resources management34(2). doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-019-02467-6.
de OcaRMGFMRamos-LealJASolache-RíosMJ, et al. (2019) Modification of the relative abundance of constituents dissolved in drinking water caused by organic pollution: a case of the Toluca Valley, Mexico. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution230: 1–13.
39.
DevarajNChidambaramSVasudevanU, et al. (2020) Determination of the major geochemical processes of groundwater along the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary of Trichinopoly, Tamilnadu, India. Acta Geochimica39: 760–781.
40.
DiédhiouMCissé FayeSDioufOC, et al. (2012) Tracing groundwater nitrate sources in the Dakar suburban area: an isotopic multi‐tracer approach. Hydrological Processes26(5): 760–770.
41.
EstellerMVKondratenkoNExpósitoJL, et al. (2017) Hydrogeochemical characteristics of a volcanic-sedimentary aquifer with special emphasis on Fe and Mn content: a case study in Mexico. Journal of Geochemical Exploration180: 113–126.
42.
FajerwergKYnamVChaudretB, et al. (2010) An original nitrate sensor based on silver nanoparticles electrodeposited on a gold electrode. Electrochemistry Communications12(10): 1439–1441.
43.
FengXYDijkstraJBanninkA, et al. (2020) Antimethanogenic effects of nitrate supplementation in cattle: a meta-analysis. Journal of Dairy Science103(12): 11375–11385.
44.
FerchichiHBen HamoudaMFFarhatB, et al. (2018) Assessment of groundwater salinity using GIS and multivariate statistics in a coastal Mediterranean aquifer. International journal of Environmental Science and Technology15: 2473–2492.
45.
FetouaniSSbaaMVancloosterM, et al. (2008) Assessing ground water quality in the irrigated plain of Triffa (north-east Morocco). Agricultural Water Management95(2): 133–142.
46.
FiankoJROsaeSAdomakoD, et al. (2009) Relationship between land use and groundwater quality in six districts in the eastern region of Ghana. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment153: 139–146.
47.
GajarajSFanCLinM, et al. (2013) Quantitative detection of nitrate in water and wastewater by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment185: 5673–5681.
48.
GanLHuangGPeiL, et al. (2022) Distributions, origins, and health-risk assessment of nitrate in groundwater in typical alluvial-pluvial fans, North China Plain. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International29: 1–18.
49.
GarlandNTMcLamoreESCavallaroND, et al. (2018) Flexible laser-induced graphene for nitrogen sensing in soil. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces10(45): 39124–39133.
50.
GhanbariK (2013) Silver nanoparticles dispersed in polypyrrole matrixes coated on glassy carbon electrode as a nitrate sensor. Analytical and Bioanalytical Electrochemistry5(1): 46–58.
51.
GokhaleAALuJWeerasiriRR, et al. (2015) Amperometric detection and quantification of nitrate ions using a highly sensitive nanostructured membrane electrocodeposited biosensor array. Electroanalysis27(5): 1127–1137.
52.
GuptaSKGuptaRCSethAK, et al. (2000) Methaemoglobinaemia in areas with high nitrate concentration in drinking water. The National Medical Journal of India13(2): 58–60.
53.
HansonBRŠimůnekJHopmansJW (2006) Evaluation of urea–ammonium–nitrate fertigation with drip irrigation using numerical modeling. Agricultural Water Management86(1-2): 102–113.
54.
HeatonTHStuartMESapianoM, et al. (2012) An isotope study of the sources of nitrate in Malta’s groundwater. Journal of Hydrology414: 244–254.
55.
HoodaVSachdevaVChauhanN (2016) Nitrate quantification: recent insights into enzyme-based methods. Reviews in Analytical Chemistry35(3): 99–114.
56.
HossainMPatraPKBegumSN, et al. (2020) Spatial and sensitivity analysis of integrated groundwater quality index towards irrigational suitability investigation. Applied Geochemistry123: 104782.
57.
HosseiniSMToscoTAtaie-AshtianiB, et al. (2018) Non-pumping reactive wells filled with mixing Nano and micro zero-valent iron for nitrate removal from groundwater: vertical, horizontal, and slanted wells. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology210: 50–64.
58.
IsmailAHShareefMAAlatarFM (2019) Hydrochemistry of groundwater and its suitability for drinking and irrigation in Baghdad, Iraq. Environmental Processes6(2): 543–560.
59.
JayantKSinghaiACaoY, et al. (2015) Non-faradaic electrochemical detection of exocytosis from mast and chromaffin cells using floating-gate mos transistors. Scientific Reports5(1): 18477.
60.
JehanSIqbalMZahirZA, et al. (2019) Effect of deficit irrigation and dairy manure on winter wheat yield, soil physical health, and nitrate leaching. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis50(16): 2003–2012.
61.
JiangGSharmaKRYuanZ (2013) Effects of nitrate dosing on methanogenic activity in a sulfide-producing sewer biofilm reactor. Water Research47(5): 1783–1792.
62.
KalimuthuPFischer-SchraderKSchwarzG, et al. (2015) A sensitive and stable amperometric nitrate biosensor employing Arabidopsis thaliana nitrate reductase. JBIC, Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry20: 385–393.
63.
KimHRYuSOhJ, et al. (2019) Nitrate contamination and subsequent hydrogeochemical processes of shallow groundwater in agro-livestock farming districts in South Korea. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment273: 50–61.
64.
KumariMRaiSC (2020) Hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes using water quality index in Semi Arid region of India. Journal of the Geological Society of India95(2): 159–168.
65.
LamQDSchmalzBFohrerN (2010) Modelling point and diffuse source pollution of nitrate in a rural lowland catchment using the SWAT model. Agricultural Water Management97(2): 317–325.
66.
LeeKCRittmannBE (2000) A novel hollow-fibre membrane biofilm reactor for autohydrogenotrophic denitrification of drinking water. Water Science and Technology41(4-5): 219–226.
67.
LeeBDEllisJTDodwellA, et al. (2018) Iodate and nitrate transformation by Agrobacterium/Rhizobium related strain DVZ35 isolated from contaminated Hanford groundwater. Journal of Hazardous Materials350: 19–26.
68.
LegrandDCBarusCGarconV (2017) Square wave voltammetry measurements of low concentrations of nitrate using Au/AgNPs electrode in chloride solutions. Electroanalysis29(12): 2882–2887.
69.
LiSLLiuCQLiJ, et al. (2010) Assessment of the sources of nitrate in the Changjiang River, China using a nitrogen and oxygen isotopic approach. Environmental Science & Technology44(5): 1573–1578.
70.
LiangSZhangLJiangF (2016) Indirect sulfur reduction via polysulfide contributes to serious odor problem in a sewer receiving nitrate dosage. Water Research100: 421–428.
71.
LindnerEGyurcsányiRE (2009) Quality control criteria for solid-contact, solvent polymeric membrane ion-selective electrodes. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry13: 51–68.
72.
LiuBZouBX (2014) Electrocatalytic sensing of nitrate at Cu nanosheets electrodeposited on WO3/polyaniline modified electrode. Advanced Materials Research881: 159–164.
73.
LiuGDWuWLZhangJ (2005) Regional differentiation of non-point source pollution of agriculture-derived nitrate nitrogen in groundwater in northern China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment107(2-3): 211–220.
74.
LiuYLiuYMengZ, et al. (2020) Thiol-functionalized reduced graphene oxide as self-assembled ion-to-electron transducer for durable solid-contact ion-selective electrodes. Talanta208: 120374.
75.
LiuYXinJWangY, et al. (2022) Dual roles of dissolved organic nitrogen in groundwater nitrogen cycling: nitrate precursor and denitrification promoter. The Science of the Total Environment811: 151375.
76.
LiuRXieXHouQ, et al. (2024) Spatial distribution, sources, and human health risk assessment of elevated nitrate levels in groundwater of an agriculture-dominant coastal area in Hainan Island, China. Journal of Hydrology634: 131088.
77.
MaXLiMLiuX, et al. (2018) A graphene oxide nanosheet-modified Ti nanocomposite electrode with enhanced electrochemical property and stability for nitrate reduction. Chemical Engineering Journal348: 171–179.
78.
MarchesiniFAMendowGPicardNP, et al. (2019) PdIn catalysts in a continuous fixed bed reactor for the nitrate removal from groundwater. International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering17(6): 20180126.
79.
MasettiMPoliSSterlacchiniS, et al. (2008) Spatial and statistical assessment of factors influencing nitrate contamination in groundwater. Journal of Environmental Management86(1): 272–281.
80.
McLayCDADragtenRSparlingG, et al. (2001) Predicting groundwater nitrate concentrations in a region of mixed agricultural land use: a comparison of three approaches. Environmental Pollution115(2): 191–204.
81.
MillerCMWaterhouseHHarterT, et al. (2020) Quantifying the uncertainty in nitrogen application and groundwater nitrate leaching in manure based cropping systems. Agricultural Systems184: 102877.
82.
MolénatJGascuel‐OdouxC (2002) Modelling flow and nitrate transport in groundwater for the prediction of water travel times and of consequences of land use evolution on water quality. Hydrological Processes16(2): 479–492.
83.
MolodkinaEBEhrenburgMRPolukarovYM, et al. (2010) Electroreduction of nitrate ions on Pt (1 1 1) electrodes modified by copper adatoms. Electrochimica Acta56(1): 154–165.
84.
MukateSWaghVPanaskarD, et al. (2019) Development of new integrated water quality index (IWQI) model to evaluate the drinking suitability of water. Ecological Indicators101: 348–354.
85.
MumtarinZRahmanMMMarwaniHM, et al. (2020) Electro-kinetics of conversion of NO3− into NO2− and sensing of nitrate ions via reduction reactions at copper immobilized platinum surface in the neutral medium. Electrochimica Acta346: 135994.
86.
MusaedHMosaAKhaledG, et al. (2024) Geospatial assessment of hydrogeochemical factors controlling groundwater evolution of the Eocene limestone and clastic quaternary aquifers, eastern desert, Egypt. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution235(9): 607.
87.
MuzendaFMasochaMMisiSN (2019) Groundwater quality assessment using a water quality index and GIS: a case of Ushewokunze Settlement, Harare, Zimbabwe. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C112: 134–140.
88.
NgasalaTMGasteyerSPMastenSJ, et al. (2019) Linking cross contamination of domestic water with storage practices at the point of use in urban areas of Dares Salaam, Tanzania. Journal of Environmental Engineering145(5): 04019017.
89.
NguyenVKParkYYuJ, et al. (2016) Simultaneous arsenite oxidation and nitrate reduction at the electrodes of bioelectrochemical systems. Environmental Science and Pollution Research23: 19978–19988.
90.
NofalMIZakiVHAhmedNAS, et al. (2019) Effects of heavy metal pollution on Nile tilapia in Manzala farm: oxidative stress biomarkers and histopathological findings. Int J Fish Aquat Stud7: 315–328.
91.
NyilityaBMureithiSBoeckxP (2020) Tracking sources and fate of groundwater nitrate in Kisumu city and Kano plains, Kenya. Water12(2): 401.
92.
Ochoa-RiveroJMJacquez-HerreraVPrieto-AmparánJA, et al. (2023) Risk assessment for the distribution and levels of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater in a semi-arid area of northern Mexico. Groundwater for Sustainable Development23: 101045.
93.
OgrincNTamšeSZavadlavS, et al. (2019) Evaluation of geochemical processes and nitrate pollution sources at the Ljubljansko polje aquifer (Slovenia): a stable isotope perspective. The Science of the Total Environment646: 1588–1600.
94.
PanYYeLNiBJ, et al. (2012) Effect of pH on N2O reduction and accumulation during denitrification by methanol utilizing denitrifiers. Water Research46(15): 4832–4840.
95.
PannoSVKellyWRBaranskiEL (2019) Hydrogeochemical controls on aquifers of northwestern Illinois’ Driftless Area, USA. Environmental Earth Sciences78(9): 276.
96.
PantDKeesariTRishiM, et al. (2020) Quality and quantity of groundwater in highly exploited aquifers of Northwest India. Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste24(2): 05019009.
97.
PasupuletiSSinghaSSSinghaS, et al. (2022) Groundwater characterization and non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risk assessment of nitrate exposure in the Mahanadi River Basin of India. Journal of Environmental Management319: 115746.
98.
PicettiRDeeneyMPastorinoS, et al. (2022) Nitrate and nitrite contamination in drinking water and cancer risk: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Environmental Research210: 112988.
99.
PiękMPiechRPaczosa-BatorB (2016) All-solid-state nitrate selective electrode with graphene/tetrathiafulvalene nanocomposite as high redox and double layer capacitance solid contact. Electrochimica Acta210: 407–414.
100.
PrommerHBarryDAZhengC (2003) MODFLOW/MT3DMS‐based reactive multicomponent transport modeling. Ground Water41(2): 247–257.
101.
RezendeDNishiLColdebellaPF, et al. (2019) Evaluation of the groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry characterization using multivariate statistics methods: case study of a hydrographic basin in Brazil. Desalination and Water Treatment161: 203–215.
102.
RezvaniFSarrafzadehMHEbrahimiS, et al. (2019) Nitrate removal from drinking water with a focus on biological methods: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research26: 1124–1141.
103.
RichaATouilSFizirM (2022) Recent advances in the source identification and remediation techniques of nitrate contaminated groundwater: a review. Journal of Environmental Management316: 115265.
104.
RichardsLAVuachèreMSchäferAI (2010) Impact of pH on the removal of fluoride, nitrate and boron by nanofiltration/reverse osmosis. Desalination261(3): 331–337.
105.
RouabhiaABaaliFFehdiC (2010) Impact of agricultural activity and lithology on groundwater quality in the Merdja area, Tebessa, Algeria. Arabian Journal of Geosciences3(3): 307–318.
106.
RozemeijerJCBroersHPVan GeerFC, et al. (2009) Weather-induced temporal variations in nitrate concentrations in shallow groundwater. Journal of Hydrology378(1-2): 119–127.
107.
RuanDBianJWangY, et al. (2024) Identification of groundwater pollution sources and health risk assessment in the Songnen Plain based on PCA-APCS-MLR and trapezoidal fuzzy number-Monte Carlo stochastic simulation model. Journal of Hydrology632: 130897.
108.
RuddSDaltonMBussP, et al. (2017) Selective uptake and sensing of nitrate in poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene). Scientific Reports7(1): 16581.
109.
RyuHThompsonDHuangY, et al. (2020) Electrochemical sensors for nitrogen species: a review. Sensors and Actuators Reports2(1): 100022.
110.
SamatyaSKabayNYükselÜ, et al. (2006) Removal of nitrate from aqueous solution by nitrate selective ion exchange resins. Reactive and Functional polymers66(11): 1206–1214.
111.
SarkarSMukherjeeADuttaguptaS, et al. (2021) Vulnerability of groundwater from elevated nitrate pollution across India: insights from spatio-temporal patterns using large-scale monitoring data. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology243: 103895.
112.
SchäferDSchäferWKinzelbachW (1998) Simulation of reactive processes related to biodegradation in aquifers: 1. Structure of the three-dimensional reactive transport model. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology31(1-2): 167–186.
113.
SchoemanJJSteynA (2003) Nitrate removal with reverse osmosis in a rural area in South Africa. Desalination155(1): 15–26.
114.
SerraJMarques-dos-SantosCMarinheiroJ, et al. (2024) Assessing nitrate groundwater hotspots in Europe reveals an inadequate designation of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones. Chemosphere355: 141830.
115.
ShaoYYingYPingJ (2020) Recent advances in solid-contact ion-selective electrodes: functional materials, transduction mechanisms, and development trends. Chemical Society Reviews49(13): 4405–4465.
116.
ShekoftehHAfyuniMHajabbasiMA, et al. (2013) Modeling of nitrate leaching from a potato field using HYDRUS-2D. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis44(20): 2917–2931.
117.
ŠimůnekJHopmansJW (2009) Modeling compensated root water and nutrient uptake. Ecological Modelling220(4): 505–521.
118.
SinghASinghGKaurN, et al. (2023) Fabrication of FRET based Nano sensor from biomass-derived fluorescent carbon quantum dots and naphthalimide for ratiometric detection of nitric oxide: to examine nitrite levels in meat samples. Analytica Chimica Acta1270: 341444.
119.
SmedleyPLShandPButcherAS (2018) Age and quality stratification of groundwater in the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone aquifer of South Yorkshire and the East Midlands, UK. Applied Geochemistry97: 109–122.
120.
SoaresOSGÓrfãoJJPereiraMFR (2010) Nitrate reduction catalyzed by Pd–Cu and Pt–Cu supported on different carbon materials. Catalysis Letters139: 97–104.
121.
StortiniAMMorettoLMMardeganA, et al. (2015) Arrays of copper nanowire electrodes: preparation, characterization and application as nitrate sensor. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical207: 186–192.
122.
SuHKangWLiY, et al. (2021) Fluoride and nitrate contamination of groundwater in the Loess Plateau, China: sources and related human health risks. Environmental Pollution286: 117287.
123.
SuhogusoffAVHirataRAravenaR, et al. (2019) Dynamics of nitrate degradation along an alternative latrine improved by a sawdust permeable reactive barrier (PRB) installed in an irregular settlement in the municipality of São Paulo (Brazil). Ecological Engineering138: 310–322.
124.
SuvarnaphaetPPechprasarnS (2017) Graphene-based materials for biosensors: a review. Sensors17(10): 2161.
125.
ThakurPKoolABagchiB, et al. (2015) The role of cerium (iii)/yttrium (iii) nitrate hexahydrate salts on electroactive β phase nucleation and dielectric properties of poly (vinylidene fluoride) thin films. RSC Advances5(36): 28487–28496.
126.
TongYHeZ (2013) Nitrate removal from groundwater driven by electricity generation and heterotrophic denitrification in a bioelectrochemical system. Journal of Hazardous Materials262: 614–619.
VeizagaEARodríguezLOcampoCJ (2016) Investigating nitrate dynamics in a fine-textured soil affected by feedlot effluents. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology193: 21–34.
129.
Villalobos-ForbesMEsquivel-HernándezGSánchez-MurilloR, et al. (2021) Stable isotopic characterization of nitrate wet deposition in the tropical urban atmosphere of Costa Rica. Environmental Science and Pollution Research28: 67577–67592.
130.
VystavnaYDiadinDYakovlevV, et al. (2017) Nitrate contamination in a shallow urban aquifer in East Ukraine: evidence from hydrochemical, stable isotopes of nitrate and land use analysis. Environmental Earth Sciences76: 1–13.
131.
WangDWuJLiP, et al. (2024) Seasonal nitrate variations, risks, and sources in groundwater under different land use types in a thousand-year-cultivated region, northwestern China. Environmental Research251: 118699.
132.
WardMHJonesRRBrenderJD, et al. (2018) Drinking water nitrate and human health: an updated review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health15(7): 1557.
133.
WeiXBaileyRTRecordsRM, et al. (2019) Comprehensive simulation of nitrate transport in coupled surface-subsurface hydrologic systems using the linked SWAT-MODFLOW-RT3D model. Environmental Modelling & Software122: 104242.
XuYUsherB (eds) (2006) Groundwater Pollution in Africa. Taylor & Francis.
138.
XuXZouYPanH, et al. (2024) Safeguarding groundwater nitrate within regional boundaries in China. Environmental Science & Technology59(1): 467–477.
139.
YangFJiaCYangX, et al. (2022) Probabilistic potential health risk quantification, hydrochemistry, driving forces of groundwater nitrate and fluoride in a typical irrigation district, Northern China. Journal of Environmental Management323: 116171.
140.
YuHYuZSongX, et al. (2015a) Seasonal variations in the nitrogen isotopic composition of dissolved nitrate in the Changjiang River estuary, China. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science155: 148–155.
141.
YuLZhangQXuQ, et al. (2015b) Electrochemical detection of nitrate in PM2. 5 with a copper-modified carbon fiber micro-disk electrode. Talanta143: 245–253.
142.
ZhadHRLZLaiRY (2015) Comparison of nanostructured silver-modified silver and carbon ultramicroelectrodes for electrochemical detection of nitrate. Analytica Chimica Acta892: 153–159.
143.
ZhangHWangHYangK, et al. (2015) Nitrate removal by a novel autotrophic denitrifier (Microbacterium sp.) using Fe (II) as electron donor. Annals of Microbiology65: 1069–1078.
144.
ZhangZLuBLiuC, et al. (2024) Nitrate pollution deterioration in winter driven by surface ozone increase. Npj Climate and Atmospheric Science7(1): 160.
145.
ZhouMZhuBButterbach-BahlK, et al. (2013) Nitrous oxide emissions and nitrate leaching from a rain-fed wheat-maize rotation in the Sichuan Basin, China. Plant and Soil362: 149–159.
146.
ZhouJWangMSunY, et al. (2017) Nitrate increased cucumber tolerance to Fusarium wilt by regulating fungal toxin production and distribution. Toxins9(3): 100.
147.
ZhuXMiaoPQinJ, et al. (2023) Spatio-temporal variations of nitrate pollution of groundwater in the intensive agricultural region: hotspots and driving forces. Journal of Hydrology623: 129864.
148.
ZuoRZhengSLiuX, et al. (2023) Groundwater table fluctuation: a driving force affecting nitrogen transformation in nitrate-contaminated groundwater. Journal of Hydrology621: 129606.
