Baumrind's (1966, 1980) description of the authoritative parenting style included the notion of challenge through providing a stimulating environment; however, research has not largely focused on how parents challenge their children. The current work argues parental challenge should be assessed as a separate component of parenting style. Analyses of a new measure, developed across three studies, showed parental challenge can be distinguished from other parenting components. Further, parental challenge made unique contributions in predicting late-adolescents' psychosocial development beyond variance explained by parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control. As such, examining challenge as a separate component of parenting style may provide additional insights regarding the relationship between parenting behaviors and adolescent development.
Aiken, L.S., & West, S.G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
2.
Allen, J.P., Hauser, S.T., Bell, K.L., & O'Connor, T.G. (1994). Longitudinal assessment of autonomy and relatedness in adolescent-family interactions as predictors of adolescent ego development and self-esteem. Child Development , 65, 179-194.
3.
Allen, J.P., Hauser, S.T., Eickholt, C., Bell, K.L., & O'Connor, T.G. (1994). Autonomy and relatedness in family interactions as predictors of expressions of negative adolescent affect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 535-552.
4.
Barber, B.K. (1994). Cultural, family, and personal contexts of parent-adolescent conflict. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 375-386.
Barber, B.K., Olsen, J.A., & Shagle, S.C. (1994). Associations between parental psychological and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65, 1120-1136.
7.
Barber, B.K., Stolz, H.E., & Olsen, J.A. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 70, 1-137.
8.
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37, 887-907.
9.
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monographs, 4 (Part 2), 1-103.
10.
Baumrind, D. (1980). New directions in socialization research. American Psychologist, 7, 639-652.
11.
Baumrind, D. (1989). Rearing competent children. In W. Damon (Ed.), Child development today and tomorrow (pp. 349-378). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
12.
Baumrind, D. (1991a). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence , 11, 56-95.
13.
Baumrind, D. (1991b). Effective parenting during the early adolescent transition. In P. A. Cowan & M. Hetherington (Eds.), Family Transitions (pp. 111-159). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
14.
Baumrind, D. (1996). The discipline controversy revisited. Family Relations, 45, 405-414.
15.
Bean, R.A., Barber, B.K., & Crane, D.R. (2006). Parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control among African American youth: The relationships to academic grades, delinquency, and depression. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 1335-1355.
16.
Bean, R.A., Bush, K.R., McKenry, P.C., & Wilson, S.M. (2003). The impact of parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control on the academic achievement and self-esteem of African American and EuropeanAmerican adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18, 523-541.
17.
Brown, B.B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S.D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64, 467-482.
Cooper, C.R., Grotevant, H.D., & Condon, S.M. (1983). Individuality and connectedness in the family as a context for adolescent identity formation and role-taking skill. New Directions for Child Development, 22, 43-59.
20.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers: The roots of success and failure . New York: Cambridge University Press.
21.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Schmidt, J. (1998). Stress and resilience in adolescence: An evolutionary perspective. In K. Borman & B. Scheider (Eds.), The adolescent years: Social influences and educational challenges (pp. 1-17). Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
22.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Schneider, B. (2000). Becoming adult: How teenagers prepare for the world of work. New York: Basic Books .
23.
Deci, E.L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York : Plenum Press.
24.
Dunn, J. (1997). Lessons from the study of bidirectional effects . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14, 565-573.
25.
Eccles, J.S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C.M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., & Mac Iver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents' experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48, 90-101.
26.
Gottman, J.M., Katz, L.F., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-emotion: How families communicate emotionally . Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
27.
Gray, M.R., & Steinberg, L. (1999). Unpacking authoritative parenting: Reassessing a multidimensional construct. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 574-587.
28.
Grolnick, W.S. (2003). The psychology of parental control: How well-meant parenting backfires. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
29.
Grotevant, H.D., & Cooper, C.R. (1985). Patterns of interaction in family relationships and the development of identity exploration in adolescence. Child Development, 56, 415-428.
30.
Grotevant, H.D., & Cooper, C.R. (1986). Individuation in family relationships: A perspective on individual differences in the development of identity and role-taking skill in adolescence. Human Development, 29, 82-100.
31.
Hart, C.H., Newell, L.D., & Olsen, S.F. (2003). Parenting skills and social-communicative competence in childhood. In J. O. Greene & B. R. Burleson (Eds.), Handbook of communication and social interaction skills (pp. 753-797). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
32.
Hauser, S.T., Houlihan, J., Powers, S.I., Jacobson, A.M., Noam, G.G., Weiss-Perry, B., Follansbee, D., & Book, B.K. (1991). Adolescent ego development within the family: Family styles and family sequences. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 14, 165-193.
33.
Hauser, S.T., Powers, S.I., & Noam, G.G. (1991). Adolescents and their families: Paths of ego development . New York: Free Press.
34.
Hektner, J., & Asakawa, K. (2000). Learning to like challenges. In M. Csikzentmihalyi & B. Schneider (Eds.), Becoming adults: How teenagers prepare for the world at work (pp. 95-112). New York: Basic Books.
35.
John, O.P., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2000). Measurement: Reliability, construct validation, and scale construction. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 339-369). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press .
36.
Kerr, K.A., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366-380.
37.
Kurdek, L.A., & Fine, M.A. (1994). Family acceptance and family control as predictors of adjustment in young adolescents: Linear, curvilinear, or interactive effects?Child Development, 65, 1137-1146.
38.
Lamborn, S.D., Mounts, N.S., Steinberg, L., & Dornbush, S.M. (1991). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 62, 1049-1065.
39.
Leaper, C., Anderson, K.J., & Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effects on parents' talk to their children: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology , 34, 3-27.
40.
Leaper, C., Hauser, S.T., Kremen, A., Powers, S.I., Jacobson, A.M., Noam, G.G., Weiss-Perry, B., & Follansbee, D. (1989). Adolescent-parent interactions in relation to adolescents' gender and ego development pathway: A longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 335-361.
41.
Lerner, R.M., & Lerner, J.V. (1987). Children in their contexts: A goodness-of-fit model. In J. B. Lancaster, J. Altmann, A. S. Rossi , & L. R. Sherrod (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 377-404). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
42.
Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Socialization, personality, and social development. Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4 (pp. 1-101). New York: Wiley.
43.
Moneta, G.B., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). The effect of perceived challenges and skills on the quality of subjective experience. Journal of Personality, 64, 275-310.
44.
Morton, T.L., & Mann, B.J. (1998). The relationship between parental controlling behavior and perceptions of control of preadolescent children and adolescents . Journal of Genetic Psychology, 159, 477-491.
45.
O'Connor, T.G., Hetherington, E.M., & Clingempeel, W.G. (1997). Systems and bidirectional influences in families. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 14, 491-504.
46.
Rathunde, K. (1996). Family context and talented adolescents' optimal experience in school-related activities. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6, 605-628.
47.
Rathunde, K. (2001). Family context and the development of undivided interest: A longitudinal study of family support and challenge and adolescents' quality of experience. Applied Developmental Science, 5, 158-171.
48.
Rathunde, K., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Adolescent happiness and family interaction. In K. Pillermer & K. McCarthey (Eds.), Parent-child relations throughout life (pp. 143-162). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
49.
Robinson, C.L., Mandleco, B., Olsen, S.F., & Hart, C.H. (1995). Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: Development of a new measure. Psychological Reports , 77, 819-830.
50.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
51.
Rosenthal, D.A., Gurney, R.M., & Moore, S.M. (1981). From trust to intimacy: A new inventory for examining Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10, 525-537.
52.
Ryan, R.M., & Lynch, J.H. (1989). Emotional autonomy versus detachment: Revisiting the vicissitudes of adolescence and young adulthood. Child Development, 60, 340-356.
53.
Schaefer, E.S. (1965a). A configuration analysis of children's reports of parent behavior. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 552-557.
54.
Schaefer, E.S. (1965b). Children's reports of parent behaviors: An inventory . Child Development, 36, 413-424.
55.
Schludermann, E., & Schludermann, S. (1970). Replicability of factors in children's report of parent behavior (CRPBI). Journal of Psychology, 76, 239-249.
56.
Schmidt, J.A., & Padilla, B. (2003). Self-esteem and family challenge: An investigation of their effects on achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 32, 37-46.
57.
Schwartz, J.C., Barton-Henry, M.L., & Pruzinsky,T. ( 1985). Assessing child rearing behaviors: A comparison of ratings made by mother, father, child, and sibling on the CRBPI. Child Development, 56, 462-479.
58.
Silk, J.S., Morris, A.S., Kanaya, T., & Steinberg, L. (2003). Psychological control and autonomy granting: Opposite ends of a continuum or distinct constructs? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13, 113-128.
Steinberg, L. (1990). Interdependency in the family: Autonomy, conflict, and harmony. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 255-276). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
61.
Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: Parent-adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence , 11, 1-19.
62.
Steinberg, L., Elmen, J.D., & Mounts, N.S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among adolescents. Child Development , 60, 1424-1436.
63.
Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S.D., Dornbusch, S.M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed . Child Development, 63, 1266-1281.
64.
Steinberg, L., & Silk, J.S. (2002). Parenting adolescents. In M H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, Vol. 1 (2nd ed., pp. 103-133). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
65.
Stolz, H.E., Barber, B.K., & Olsen, J.A. (2005). Toward disentangling fathering and mothering: An assessment of relative importance. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 67, 1076-1092.
66.
Strage, A. (1998). Family context variables and the development of self-regulation in college students. Adolescence, 33, 17-31.
67.
Vazsonyi, A.T., Hibbert, J.R., & Snider, J.B. (2003). Exotic enterprise no more? Adolescent reports of family and parenting processes from youth in four countries. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13, 129-160.
68.
Walker, L.J., & Taylor, J.H. (1991). Family interactions and the development of moral reasoning. Child Development, 62, 264-283.
