Multiple object tracking (MOT) and multiple identity tracking (MIT) each measure the ability to track moving objects visually. While prior investigators have mainly compared athletes and non-athletes on MOT, MIT more closely resembles dynamic real-life environments. Here we compared the performance and gaze behavior of handball players with non-athletes on both MOT and MIT. Since previous researchers have shown that MOT and MIT engage different eye movement strategies, we had participants track 3–5 targets among 10 moving objects. In MOT, the objects were identical, while in MIT they differed in shape and color. Although we observed no group differences for tracking accuracy, the eye movements of athletes were more target-oriented than those of non-athletes. We concluded that tasks and stimuli intended by researchers to demonstrate that athletes’ show better object tracking than non-athletes should be specific to the athletes’ type of sport and should use more perception-action coupled measures. An implication of this conclusion is that the differences in object tracking skills between athletes and non-athletes is highly specific to the skills demanded by the athletes’ sport.
AbernethyB.NealR. J.KoningP. (1994). Visual-perceptual and cognitive differences between expert, intermediate and novice snooker players. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8(3), 185–211. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350080302
2.
AczelB.PalfiB.SzollosiA.KovacsM.SzasziB.SzecsiP.ZrubkaM.GronauQ. F.van den BerghD.WagenmakersE. J.WagenmakersE. J. (2018). Quantifying support for the null hypothesis in psychology: An empirical investigation. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 1(3), 357–366. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/zqkyt
3.
AllenR.McgeorgeP.PearsonD.MilneA. B. (2004). Attention and expertise in multiple target tracking. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(3), 337–347. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.975
4.
BramsS.ZivG.LevinO.SpitzJ.WagemansJ.WilliamsA. M.HelsenW. F. (2019). The relationship between gaze behavior, expertise, and performance: A systematic review. Psychological Bulletin, 145(10), 980–1027. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000207
5.
CavanaghP.AlvarezG. A. (2005). Tracking multiple targets with multifocal attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(7), 349–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.05.009
6.
CzyżS. H.KwonO. S.MarzecJ.StyrkowiecP.BreslinG. (2015). Visual uncertainty influences the extent of an especial skill. Human Movement Science, 44, 143–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2015.08.014
7.
EhmannP.BeavanA.SpielmannJ.MayerJ.AltmannS.RufL.RohrmannS.IrmerJ. P.EnglertC. (2022). Perceptual-cognitive performance of youth soccer players in a 360°-environment – differences between age groups and performance levels. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 59, 102120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102120
8.
FaubertJ. (2013). Professional athletes have extraordinary skills for rapidly learning complex and neutral dynamic visual scenes. Scientific Reports, 3(1), 1154. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01154
9.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA.-G.BuchnerA. (2007). G power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
Goss-SampsonM.Johny van DoornA.WagenmakersE. J. (2020). Bayesian inference in JASP: a guide for students. Open Access. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/CKNXM
12.
GreenC. S.BavelierD. (2006). Enumeration versus multiple object tracking: The case of action video game players. Cognition, 101(1), 217–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2005.10.004
13.
HarrisD. J.WilsonM. R.CroweE. M.VineS. J. (2020). Examining the roles of working memory and visual attention in multiple object tracking expertise. Cognitive Processing, 21(2), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-020-00954-y
14.
HodgesN. J.Wyder-HodgeP. A.HetheringtonS.BakerJ.BeslerZ.SperingM. (2021). Topical review: Perceptual-cognitive skills, methods, and skill-based comparisons in interceptive sports. Optometry and Vision Science: Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry, 98(7), 681–695. https://doi.org/10.1097/opx.0000000000001727
HowardC. J.UttleyJ.AndrewsS. (2018). Team ball sport participation is associated with performance in two sustained visual attention tasks: Position monitoring and target identification in rapid serial visual presentation streams. Progress in Brain Research, 240, 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.09.001
18.
HullemanJ. (2005). The mathematics of multiple object tracking: From proportions correct to number of objects tracked. Vision Research, 45(17), 2298–2309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2005.02.016
19.
HyönäJ.LiJ.OksamaL. (2019). Eye behavior during multiple object tracking and multiple identity tracking. Vision, 3(3), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/vision3030037
20.
JinP.LiX.MaB.GuoH.ZhangZ.MaoL. (2020). Dynamic visual attention characteristics and their relationship to match performance in skilled basketball players. PeerJ, 8, Article e9803. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9803
21.
KalénA.BisagnoE.MusculusL.RaabM.Pérez-FerreirósA.WilliamsA. M.AraújoD.LindwallM.IvarssonA. (2021). The role of domain-specific and domain-general cognitive functions and skills in sports performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(12), 1290–1308. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000355
22.
KeetchK. M.LeeT. D.SchmidtR. A. (2008). Especial skills: Specificity embedded within generality. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30(6), 723–736. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.6.723
23.
KlostermannA.MoeiniradS. (2020). Fewer fixations of longer duration? Expert gaze behavior revisited. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research, 50(1), 146–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12662-019-00616-y
24.
LiJ.OksamaL.HyönäJ. (2019). Model of multiple identity tracking (MOMIT) 2.0: Resolving the serial vs. parallel controversy in tracking. Cognition, 182, 260–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.10.016
25.
LiL.SmithD. M. (2021). Neural efficiency in athletes: A systematic review. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 15, 698555. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.698555
26.
LoveJ.SelkerR.MarsmanM.JamilT.DropmannD.VerhagenJ.LyA.GronauQ. F.SmíraM.EpskampS.MatzkeD.WildA.KnightP.RouderJ. N.MoreyR. D.WagenmakersE.-J. (2019). JASP: Graphical statistical software for common statistical designs. Journal of Statistical Software, 88(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v088.i02
27.
LukavskyJ.MeyerhoffH. S. (2023). Gaze coherence reveals distinct tracking strategies in multiple object and multiple identity tracking. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-023-02417-9
28.
MangineG. T.HoffmanJ. R.WellsA. J.GonzalezA. M.RogowskiJ. P.TownsendJ. R.JajtnerA. R.BeyerK. S.BohnerJ. D.PrunaG. J.FragalaM. S.StoutJ. R. (2014). Visual tracking speed is related to basketball specific measures of performance in NBA players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(9), 2406–2414. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000000550
29.
MannD. T.WilliamsA. M.WardP.JanelleC. M. (2007). Perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29(4), 457–478. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.29.4.457
30.
MartínA.SferA. M.D’Urso VillarM. A.BarrazaJ. F. (2017). Position affects performance in multiple-object tracking in rugby union players. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1494. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01494
31.
MemmertD.SimonsD. J.GrimmeT. (2009). The relationship between visual attention and expertise in sports. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(1), 146–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.06.002
32.
MeyerhoffH. S.PapenmeierF.HuffM. (2017). Studying visual attention using the multiple object tracking paradigm: A tutorial review. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 79(5), 1255–1274. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1338-1
33.
OksamaL.HyönäJ. (2004). Is multiple object tracking carried out automatically by an early vision mechanism independent of higher order cognition? An individual difference approach. Visual Cognition, 11(5), 631–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280344000473
PylyshynZ. W.StormR. W. (1988). Tracking multiple independent targets: Evidence for a parallel tracking mechanism. Spatial Vision, 3(3), 179–197. https://doi.org/10.1163/156856888x00122
36.
QiuF.PiY.LiuK.LiX.ZhangJ.WuY. (2018). Influence of sports expertise level on attention in multiple object tracking. PeerJ, 6, Article e5732. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5732
37.
SchollB. J. (2009). What have we learned about attention from multiple object tracking (and vice versa)? In DedrickD.TrickL. (Eds.), Computation, cognition, and pylyshyn (pp. 49–77). MIT Press.
38.
VuA.SorelA.LimballeA.BideauB.KulpaR. (2022). Multiple players tracking in virtual reality: Influence of soccer specific trajectories and relationship with gaze activity. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 901438. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901438
39.
WestK. L.BressanE. S. (1996). The effects of a general versus specific visual skills training program on accuracy in judging length-of-ball in cricket. International Journal of Sports Vision, 3, 41–45.
40.
WoodJ. M.AbernethyB. (1997). An assessment of the efficacy of sports vision training programs. Optometry and Vision Science: Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry, 74(8), 646–659. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006324-199708000-00026
41.
WuC. C.WolfeJ. M. (2018). Comparing eye movements during position tracking and identity tracking: No evidence for separate systems. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 80(2), 453–460. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1447-x
42.
ZelinskyG. J.NeiderM. B. (2008). An eye movement analysis of multiple object tracking in a realistic environment. Visual Cognition, 16(5), 553–566. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280802000752
43.
ZhangX.YanM.YangangL. (2009). Differential performance of Chinese volleyball athletes and non-athletes on a multiple-object tracking task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 109(3), 747–756. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.109.3.747-756
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
