The use of animals as a model for humans has a long history. This paper describes in a bird’s eye view the main developments from the ancient period until recent times. Although animal models have been used since the early Greek and Roman civilizations, the main increase in their use dates from the end of the Second World War. Not only did the number of animals used in experiments increase dramatically in this period, but also the variety of species, as well as the purposes for which animals were used. However, from the 1970s onwards, the number of animal experiments has decreased. The reasons for this decrease are briefly explored.
EricssonACCrimMJFranklinCL.A brief history of animal modeling. Mo Med2013; 110: 201–205.
2.
AlstrupAKOKjærgaardB. Historical perspectives on the use of animals in biomedical research. Scand J Lab Anim Sci2019; 45: 1–10.
3.
FerngrenG.Vivisection ancient and modern. Hist Med2017; 171: 1–19.
4.
KopaladzeRA.Alcmaeon of Croton (VI Century BC) – physician, biologist, a pathologist, and neuroscientist, practiced vivisection on animals. Bioethics2023; 11: 68–72.
5.
PasipoularidesA.Historical Perspective: Harvey’s epoch-making discovery of the Circulation, its historical antecedents, and some initial consequences on medical practice. J Appl Physiol2013; 114: 1493–1503.
6.
Van ZutphenLFM. Introduction. In: van ZutphenLFMBaumansVBeynenAC (eds) Principles of laboratory animal science. 2nd ed.Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 2001, pp.1–10.
7.
HujjatFNajiH.Contributions of Rhazes (al-Razi) to the medical sciences. Avicenna J Med Biotech2020; 12: 125–131.
8.
DaghestaniMA.Rhazes: the father of Islamic medicine. Ann Saudi Med1997; 17: 200–202.
9.
NumanMT.Ibn al-Nafis: discoverer of the pulmonary circulation. Saudi Med J2021; 42: 786–789.
10.
PormannPE.Medical Innovation in the Islamic World. Nature2020; 581: 36–37.
WMA Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical principles for medical research involving human participants. In:75th WMA General Assembly, Helsinki, Finland, 16–19 October 2024, https://www.wma.net (accessed 25 January 2025).
14.
Council of the European Union: Directive 2010/63. Directive 2010/63/EU of the European parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010 on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes. Brussels, Belgium: Official Journal of the European Union, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:276:0033:0079:en:PDF (2010, accessed 25 January 2025).
15.
National Research Council. Guide for the care and use of laboratory animals. 8th ed.Washington, DC: The National Academy Press, 2010.
16.
Percie du SertNHurstVAhluwaliaA, et al. The ARRIVE guidelines 2.0: updated guidelines for reporting animal research. BMC Vet Res2020; 16: 242.
17.
RussellWMSBurchRL. The principles of humane experimental technique. London: Methuen, 1959. Reprinted by UFAW, Potters Bar, Herts, England, 1992.
18.
LowLAMummeryCBerridgeBR, et al. Organs-on-chips: into the next decade. Nat Rev Drug Discov2021; 20: 345–361.
19.
RossiGManfrinALutolfMP.Progress and potential in organoid research. Nat Rev Genet2018; 19: 671–687.
20.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. New approaches for assessing the safety of chemicals: a vision and a strategy. Washington DC: The Academic Press, 2022.
21.
EURL ECVAM. New approach methodologies in regulatory science. Nat Rev Drug Discov2023; 22: 331–332.
22.
HartungT.Perspectives on in vitro to in vivo extrapolations. Appl In Vitro Toxicol2018; 4: 305–316.
23.
HedenqvistPBaumansVHanaiK, et al. Toward Global Harmonization of training and certification of specialists in laboratory animal veterinary medicine. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci2021; 99: 1–6.
24.
MedawarP. The hope of progress. 1st ed. London: Routledge Revivals, 1972.
25.
GygerMBerdoyMDontasI, et al. FELASA accreditation of education and training courses in laboratory animal science according to the directive 2010/63/EU. Lab Anim2019; 53: 137–147.
