Attaining durable peace (DP) after a civil war has proven to be a major challenge, as many negotiated agreements lapse into violence. How can negotiations to terminate civil wars be conducted and peace agreements formulated to contribute to lasting peace? This question is addressed in this study with a novel data set. Focusing on justice, we assess relationships between process (procedural justice [PJ]) and outcome (distributive justice [DJ]) justice on the one hand and stable agreements (SA) and DP on the other. Analyses of fifty peace agreements, which were reached from 1957 to 2008, showed a path from PJ to DJ to SA to DP: The justice variables were instrumental in enhancing both short- and long-term peace. These variables had a stronger impact on DP than a variety of contextual- and case-related factors. The empirical link between justice and peace has implications for the way that peace negotiations are structured.
AdamsJ. Stacy. 1965. “Inequity in Social Exchange.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, edited by BerkowitzL., 267–99. New York: Academic Press.
2.
AlbinCeciliaDruckmanDaniel. 2012. “Equality Matters: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars.” Journal of Conflict Resolution56 (1): 155–82.
3.
BalcellsLaiaJustinoPatricia. 2014. “Bridging Micro and Macro Approaches on Civil Wars and Political Violence: Issues, Challenges, and the Way Forward.” Journal of Conflict Resolution58 (8): 1343–59.
4.
BarryBrian. 1996. Justice as Impartiality. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
5.
Bar-TelDaniel. 2008. “Reconciliation as a Foundation of Culture of Peace.” In Handbook on Building Cultures of Peace, edited by RiveraJoseph de, 363–77. Berlin-Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
6.
BinningsboHelga MalminLoyleCyanne E.GatesScottElsterJon. 2012. “Armed Conflict and Post-civil War Justice, 1946-2006: A Dataset.” Journal of Peace Research49 (5): 731–40.
7.
CasperJonathan D.TylerTom R.FisherBonnie. 1988. “Procedural Justice in Felony Cases.” Law and Society Review22 (3): 483–507.
8.
CousensElizabeth M.KumarChetinWermesterand Karin, eds. 2001. Peacebuilding as Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
9.
DeutschMorton. 1985. Distributive Justice: A Social-psychological Perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
DownsGeorgeStedmanStephen J.. 2002. “Evaluation Issues in Peace Implementation.” In Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements, edited by StedmanSteven J.RothchildDonaldCousensElizabeth M., 43–70. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
12.
DruckmanDaniel. 1980. “Social-psychological Factors in Regional Politics.” In Comparative Regional Systems, edited by FeldWerner J.BoydGavin, 18–55. New York: Pergamon.
13.
DruckmanDaniel. 1993. “The Situational Levers of Negotiating Flexibility.” Journal of Conflict Resolution37 (2): 236–76.
14.
DruckmanDanielAlbinCecilia. 2011. “Distributive Justice and the Durability of Peace Agreements.” Review of International Studies37 (3): 1137–68.
15.
DruckmanDanielWagnerLynn. 2016. “Justice and Negotiation.” Annual Review of Psychology67:387–413.
16.
ElbadwiIbrahimSambanisNicholas. 2002. “How Much War Will We See? Explaining the Prevalence of Civil War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution46 (3): 307–34.
17.
FortnaVirginia Page. 2008. Does Peacekeeping Work?Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
18.
HartzellCaroline A.HoddieMatthew. 2003. “Institutionalizing Peace: Power Sharing and Post-civil War Conflict Management.” American Journal of Political Science47 (2): 318–32.
19.
HartzellCaroline A.HoddieMatthew. 2008. Crafting Peace: Power-sharing Institutions and the Negotiated Settlement of Civil Wars. University Park: Penn State University Press.
20.
HayesAndrew F.2013. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-based Approach. New York: The Guilford Press.
21.
HaynerPriscilla B.2011. Unspeakable Truths: Transitional Justice and the Challenge of Truth Commissions, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.
22.
HealdDavid. 2006. “Varieties of Transparency.” Proceedings of the British Academy135:25–43.
23.
HironakaAnn. 2005. Neverending Wars. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
24.
HögbladhStina. 2012. “Peace Agreements 1975-2011—Updating the UCDP Peace Agreement Dataset.” In States in Armed Conflict 2011, edited by PetterssonTheréseThemnérLotta, 39–56. Uppsala, Sweden: Department of Peace and Conflict Research Report 99, Uppsala University.
25.
Hollander-BlumoffRebecca. 2017. “Formation of Procedural Justice Judgments in Legal Negotiation.” Group Decision and Negotiation26 (1): 19–43.
26.
Hollander-BlumoffRebeccaTylerTom R.. 2008. “Procedural Justice in Negotiation: Procedural Fairness, Outcome Acceptance, and Integrative Potential.” Law & Social Inquiry33 (2): 473–500.
27.
HumeCameron. 1994. Ending Mozambique’s War: The Role of Mediation and Good Offices. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.
28.
IrmerCynthiaDruckmanDaniel. 2009. “Explaining Negotiation Outcomes: Context or Process?” Negotiation and Conflict Management Research2 (3): 209–35.
29.
JoshiMadhavMichael QuinnJ.. 2015. “Is the Sum Greater than the Parts? The Terms of Civil War Peace Agreements and the Commitment Problem Revisited.” Negotiation Journal31 (1): 7–30.
30.
JoshiMadhavMichael QuinnJ.ReganPatrick M.. 2015. “Annualized Implementation Data on Comprehensive Intrastate Peace Accords, 1989–2012.” Journal of Peace Research52 (4): 551–62.
31.
KabanoffBoris. 1991. “Equity, Equality, Power, and Conflict.” Academy of Management Review16 (2): 416–41.
32.
LearyKimberlyn. 2004. “Critical Moments in Negotiation.” Negotiation Journal20 (2): 143–45.
33.
LeventhalGerald S.KaruzaJurgisFryWilliam R.. 1980. “Beyond Fairness: A Theory of Allocation Preferences.” In Justice and Social Interaction, edited by MikulaGerold, 167–228. New York: Springer.
34.
LindE. AllanTylerTom R.. 1988. The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice. New York: Plenum.
35.
LindE. AlanTylerTom R.HuoYuen J.. 1997. “Procedural Context and Culture: Variation in Antecedents of Procedural Justice Judgments.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology73 (4): 767–80.
36.
MattesMichaelaSavunBurcu. 2009. “Fostering Peace after Civil War: Commitment Problems and Agreement Design.” International Studies Quarterly53 (3): 737–59.
37.
O’ReillyColin W.2014. “Investment and Institutions in Post-civil War Recovery.” Comparative Economic Studies56(1): 1–24
38.
ParisRoland. 2004. At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict. New York: Cambridge University Press.
39.
PruittDean G.PierceRobert S.McGillicuddyNeil B.WeltonGary L.CastriannoLynn M.. 1993. “Long-term Success in Mediation.” Law and Human Behavior17 (3): 313–30.
40.
QuinnJ. MichaelDavid MasonT.GursesMehmet. 2007. “Sustaining the Peace: Determinants of Civil War Recurrence.” International Interactions33 (2): 167–93.
41.
StevensJames P.2012. Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences, 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
42.
ThibautJohn W.WalkerLaurens. 1975. Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
43.
ThomsOskar N. T.RonJamesParisRoland. 2010. “State-level Effects of Transitional Justice: What Do We Know?” The International Journal of Transitional Justice4 (3): 329–54.
44.
UN (United Nations). 2000. Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations. New York: United Nations.
45.
WagnerLynnDruckmanDaniel. 2012. “The Role of Justice in Historical Negotiations.” Negotiation and Conflict Management Research5:49–71.
46.
WagnerLynnDruckmanDaniel. 2017. “Drivers of Peace: The Role of Justice in Negotiating Civil War Termination.” Group Decision and Negotiation26 (1): 45–67.
47.
WallensteenPeterMelanderErikHögbladhStina. 2013. “Peace Agreements, Justice and Durable Peace.” In Rethinking Peacebuilding. The Quest for Just Peace in the Middle East and the Western Balkans, edited by AggestamKarinBjörkdahlAnnika, 125–139. London, UK: Routledge.
48.
WalterBarbara F.2002. Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
