An Evaluation (and Vindication?) of Lewis Terman: What the Father of Gifted Education Can Teach the 21st Century

Abstract

Lewis Terman is widely seen as the “father of gifted education,” yet his work is controversial. Terman’s “mixed legacy” includes the pioneering work in the creation of intelligence tests, the first large-scale longitudinal study, and the earliest discussions of gifted identification, curriculum, ability grouping, acceleration, and more. However, since the 1950s, Terman has been viewed as a sloppy thinker at best and a racist, sexist, and/or classist at worst. This article explores the most common criticisms of Terman’s legacy: an overemphasis on IQ, support for the meritocracy, and emphasizing genetic explanations for the origin of intelligence differences over environmental ones. Each of these criticisms is justified to some extent by the historical record, and each is relevant today. Frequently overlooked, however, is Terman’s willingness to form a strong opinion based on weak data. The article concludes with a discussion of the important lessons that Terman’s work has for modern educators and psychologists, including his contributions to psychometrics and gifted education, his willingness to modify his opinions in the face of new evidence, and his inventiveness and inclination to experiment. Terman’s legacy is complex, but one that provides insights that can enrich modern researchers and practitioners in these areas.

Keywords

philosophical/theoretical history of gifted education Lewis Terman

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allik

Realo

(2017). Universal and specific in the five factor model of personality. In Widiger

T. A.

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of the five factor model (pp. 173-190). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bellhouse

D. R.

(2009). Karl Pearson’s influence in the United States. International Statistical Review, 77, 51-63. doi:10.1111/j.1751-5823.2009.00066.x

Benbow

C. P.

(1988). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents: Their nature, effects, and possible causes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 169-232.

Boring

E. G.

(1959). Lewis Madison Terman. In Biographical memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (Vol. 33, pp. 414-461). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Bouchard

Jr. (2014). Genes, evolution and intelligence. Behavior Genetics, 44, 549-577. doi:10.1007/s10519-014-9646-x

Broberg

Roll-Hansen

(Eds.). (2005). Eugenics and the welfare state: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.

Broberg

Tydén

(2005). Eugenics in Sweden: Efficient care. In Broberg

Roll-Hansen

(Eds.), Eugenics and the welfare state: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland (pp. 77-149). East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.

Bureau of the Census. (1924). Fourteenth census of the United States: State compendium: California. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Burks

B. S.

(1973). The relative influence of nature and nurture upon mental development: A comparative study of foster parent–foster child resemblance and true parent–true child resemblance. In Eysenck

H. J.

(Ed.), The Measurement of Intelligence (pp. 325-357). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. (Original work published 1928)

10.

Burks

B. S.

Jensen

D. W.

Terman

L. M.

(1930). Genetic studies of genius: Vol. III. The promise of youth: Follow-up studies of a thousand gifted children. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

11.

Callahan

C. M.

(1996). A critical self-study of gifted education: Healthy practice, necessary evil, or sedition? Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 19, 148-163.

12.

Calvin

(2000). Use of standardized tests in admissions in postsecondary institutions of higher education. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6, 20-32. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.20

13.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: United States, 2007-2010. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_11/sr11_252.pdf

14.

Chapman

P. D.

(1988). School as sorters: Lewis M. Terman, applied psychology, and the intelligence testing movement, 1890-1930. New York: New York University Press.

15.

Cravens

(1992). A scientific project locked in time: The Terman Genetic Studies of Genius, 1920s-1950s. American Psychologist, 47, 183-189.

16.

Cucina

J. M.

Peyton

S. T.

Byle

K. A.

(2016). Role of mental abilities and mental tests in explaining high-school grades. Intelligence, 54, 90-104. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.11.007

17.

Dahlstrom

W. G.

(1985). The development of psychological testing. In Kimble

G. A.

Schlesinger

(Eds.), Topics in the history of psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 63-113). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.

18.

Dalliard

(2014). The elusive x-factor: A critique of J. M. Kaplan’s model of race and IQ. Open Differe ntial Psychology. doi:10.26775/ODP.2014.08.25

19.

Deary

I. J.

Thorpe

Wilson

Starr

J. M.

Whalley

L. J.

(2003). Population sex differences in IQ at age 11: The Scottish mental survey 1932. Intelligence, 31, 533-542. doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(03)00053-9

20.

Deary

I. J.

Whiteman

M. C.

Starr

J. M.

Whalley

L. J.

Fox

H. C.

(2004). The impact of childhood intelligence on later life: Following up the Scottish Mental Surveys of 1932 and 1947. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 130-147. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.130

21.

Dolan

C. V.

(2000). Investigating Spearman’s hypothesis by means of multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35, 21-50. doi:10.1207/S15327906MBR3501_2

22.

Domingue

B. W.

Belsky

D. W.

Conley

Harris

K. M.

Boardman

J. D.

(2015). Polygenic influence on educational attainment: New evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. AERA Open, 1(3), 1-13. doi:10.1177/2332858415599972

23.

Fancher

R. E.

(1985). The intelligence men: Makers of the IQ controversy. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

24.

Feldman

D. H.

(1984). A follow-up of subjects scoring above 180 IQ in Terman’s “Genetic Studies of Genius.” Exceptional Children, 50, 518-523. doi:10.1177/001440298405000604

25.

Gale

C. R.

Batty

G. D.

Tynelius

Deary

I. J.

Rasmussen

(2010). Intelligence in early adulthood and subsequent hospitalization for mental disorders. Epidemiology, 21, 70-77. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181c17da8

26.

Gillham

N. W.

(2001). A life of Sir Francis Galton: From African exploration to the birth of eugenics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

27.

Glass

(1986). Geneticists embattled: Their stand against rampant eugenics and racism in America during the 1920s and 1930s. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 130, 130-154.

28.

Goodenough

F. L.

(1926). Racial differences in the intelligence of school children. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9, 388-397. doi:10.1037/h0073325

29.

Gottfredson

L. S.

(1997a). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. Intelligence, 24, 13-23. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90011-8

30.

Gottfredson

L. S.

(1997b). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24, 79-132. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90014-3

31.

Gottfredson

L. S.

(2004). Intelligence: Is it the epidemiologists’ elusive “fundamental cause” of social class inequalities in health? Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 86, 174-199. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.174

32.

Gottfredson

L. S.

(2005a). Implications of cognitive differences for schooling within diverse societies. In Frisby

C. L.

Reynolds

C. R.

(Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 517-554). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

33.

Gottfredson

L. S.

(2005b). What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 311-319. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.311

34.

Gottfredson

L. S.

Deary

I. J.

(2004). Intelligence predicts health and longevity, but why? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 1-4. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01301001.x

35.

Gould

S. J.

(1981). The mismeasure of man. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

36.

Greenberg

(1955). A critique of classic methods of identifying gifted children. School Review, 63, 25-30. doi:10.2307/1083412

37.

Gross

M. U. M.

(2004). Exceptionally gifted children (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

38.

Hansen

B. S.

(2005). Something rotten in the state of Denmark: Eugenics and the ascent of the welfare state. In Broberg

Roll-Hansen

(Eds.), Eugenics and the welfare state: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland (pp. 9-76). East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.

39.

Harris

C. R.

(1990). The Hollingworth longitudinal study: Follow-up, findings, and implications. Roeper Review, 12, 216-222. doi:10.1080/02783199009553275

40.

Hartmann

Kruuse

N. H. S.

Nyborg

(2007). Testing the cross-racial generality of Spearman’s hypothesis in two samples. Intelligence, 35, 47-57. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.04.004

41.

Herrnstein

R. J.

(1971). I.Q. The Atlantic, 228(3), 43-64.

42.

Herrnstein

R. J.

(1973). I.Q. in the meritocracy. Boston, MA: Atlantic Monthly Press.

43.

Herrnstein

R. J.

Murray

(1996). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.

44.

Hildreth

G. H.

(1925). The resemblance of siblings in intelligence and achievement. New York, NY: Columbia University, Teachers College.

45.

Hilgard

E. R.

(1957). Lewis Madison Terman: 1877-1956. American Journal of Psychology, 70, 472-479.

46.

Holahan

C. K.

Sears

R. R.

(1995). The gifted group in later maturity. Stanford, CA: University of Stanford Press.

47.

Hollingworth

H. L.

(1939). Psychological factors in marital happiness [Book review]. Psychological Bulletin, 36, 191-197. doi:10.1037/h0063047

48.

Hur

Y.-M.

te Nijenhuis

Jeong

H.-U.

(2017). Testing Lynn’s theory of sex differences in intelligence in a large sample of Nigerian school-aged children and adolescents (n > 11,000) using Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices Plus. Mankind Quarterly, 57, 428-437.

49.

Janos

P. M.

(1987). A fifty-year follow-up of Terman’s youngest college students and IQ-matched agemates. Gifted Child Quarterly, 31, 55-58. doi:10.1177/001698628703100202

50.

Jensen

A. R.

(1980). Précis of bias in mental testing. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 325-333. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00005161

51.

Jensen

A. R.

(1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.

52.

Jolly

J. L.

(2008a). Genetic Study of Genius: Elementary school students. Gifted Child Today, 31(1), 27-33.

53.

Jolly

J. L.

(2008b). A paradoxical point of view: Lewis M. Terman. Gifted Child Today, 31(2), 36-37.

54.

Keating

D. P.

(1975). Possible sampling bias in Genetic Studies of Genius. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 35, 657-662. doi:10.1177/001316447503500313

55.

Kevles

D. J.

(1995). In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

56.

Koch

(2006). Past futures: On the conceptual history of eugenics: A social technology of the past. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 18, 329-344. doi:10.1080/09537320600777085

57.

Lagemann

E. C.

(2000). An elusive science: The troubling history of education research. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

58.

Lakin

J. M.

(2013). Sex differences in reasoning abilities: Surprising evidence that male–female ratios in the tails of the quantitative reasoning distribution have increased. Intelligence, 41, 263-274. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.004

59.

Leslie

(2000). The vexing legacy of Lewis Terman. Stanford Magazine. Retrieved from https://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40678

60.

Lubinski

(2016). From Terman to today: A century of findings on intelllectual precocity. Review of Educational Research, 86, 900-944. doi:10.3102/0034654316675476

61.

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

(1994). The Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth: The first three decades of a planned 50-year study of intellectual talent. In Subotnik

R. F.

Arnold

K. D.

(Eds.), Beyond Terman: Contemporary longitudinal studies of giftedness and talent (pp. 255-281). Westport, CT: Ablex.

62.

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

(2006). Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth after 35 years: Uncovering antecedents for the development of math–science expertise. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 316-345. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00019.x

63.

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

Kell

H. J.

(2014). Life paths and accomplishments of mathematically precocious males and females four decades later. Psychological Science, 25, 2217-2232. doi:10.1177/0956797614551371

64.

Lubinski

Humphreys

L. G.

(1992). Some bodily and medical correlates of mathematical giftedness and commensurate levels of socioeconomic status. Intelligence, 16, 99-115. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90027-o

65.

Lubke

G. H.

Dolan

C. V.

Kelderman

Mellenbergh

G. J.

(2003). On the relationship between sources of within- and between-group differences and measurement invariance in the common factor model. Intelligence, 31, 543-566. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(03)00051-5

66.

Makel

M. C.

Kell

H. J.

Lubinski

Putallaz

Benbow

C. P.

(2016). When lightning strikes twice: Profoundly gifted, profoundly accomplished. Psychological Science, 27, 1004-1018. doi:10.1177/0956797616644735

67.

Mercer

J. R.

(1979). In defense of racially and culturally non-discriminatory assessment. School Psychology Review, 8, 89-115.

68.

Merriman

(1924). The intellectual resemblance of twins. Psychological Monographs, 33, 1-57. doi:10.1037/h0093212

69.

Minton

H. L.

(1988). Lewis M. Terman: Pioneer in psychological testing. New York: New York University Press.

70.

Moore

E. G.

(1986). Family socialization and the IQ test performance of traditionally and transracially adopted Black children. Developmental Psychology, 22, 317-326. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.317

71.

Morelock

M. J.

Feldman

D. H.

(1997). High-IQ children, extreme precocity, and savant syndrome. In Colangelo

Davis

G. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (pp. 439-459). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

72.

Nagoshi

C. T.

Johnson

R. C.

DeFries

J. C.

Wilson

J. R.

Vandenberg

S. G.

(1984). Group differences and first principal-component loadings in the Hawaii family study of cognition: A test of the generality of “Spearman’s hypothesis.” Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 751-753. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(84)90125-9

73.

Oden

M. H.

(1968). The fulfillment of promise: 40-year follow-up of the Terman gifted group. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 77, 3-93.

74.

Pearson

(1903). On the inheritance of the mental and moral characters in man, and its comparison with the inheritance of the physical characters. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 33, 179-237. doi:10.2307/2842809

75.

Pearson

E. S.

(1936). Karl Pearson: An appreciation of some aspects of his life and work: Part I: 1857-1906. Biometrika, 28, 193-257. doi:10.1093/biomet/28.3-4.193

76.

Pickrell

J. K.

Berisa

Liu

J. Z.

Segurel

Tung

J. Y.

Hinds

D. A.

(2016). Detection and interpretation of shared genetic influences on 42 human traits. Nature Genetics, 48, 709-717. doi:10.1038/ng.3570

77.

Piffer

(2015). A review of intelligence GWAS hits: Their relationship to country IQ and the issue of spatial autocorrelation. Intelligence, 53, 43-50. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.08.008

78.

Plomin

(2001). The genetics of g in human and mouse. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 136-141. doi:10.1038/35053584

79.

Plomin

DeFries

J. C.

Knopik

V. S.

Neiderhiser

J. M.

(2016). Top 10 replicated findings from behavioral genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 3-23. doi:10.1177/1745691615617439

80.

Rende

R. D.

Plomin

Vandenberg

S. G.

(1990). Who discovered the twin method? Behavior Genetics, 20, 277-285.

81.

Renzulli

J. S.

(1978). What makes giftedness? Reexamining a definition. Phi Delta Kappan, 60, 180-184, 261. doi:10.1177/003172171109200821

82.

Richardson

J. T. E.

(2011). Howard Andrew Knox: Pioneer of intelligence testing at Ellis Island. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

83.

Rimfeld

Krapohl

Trzaskowski

Coleman

J. R. I.

Selzam

Dale

P. S.

. . . Plomin

(2018). Genetic influence on social outcomes during and after the Soviet era in Estonia. Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 269-275. doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0332-5

84.

Rinn

A. N.

Bishop

(2015). Gifted adults: A systematic review and analysis of the literature. Gifted Child Quarterly, 59, 213-235. doi:10.1177/0016986215600795

85.

Robinson

H. B.

(1981). The uncommonly bright child. In Lewis

Rosenblum

L. A.

(Eds.), The uncommon child: Genesis of behavior (pp. 57-81). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

86.

Rogers

K. B.

(1999). The lifelong productivity of the female researchers in Terman’s Genetic Studies of Genius longitudinal study. Gifted Child Quarterly, 43, 150-169. doi:10.1177/001698629904300303

87.

Roth

Becker

Romeyke

Schäfer

Domnick

Spinath

F. M.

(2015). Intelligence and school grades: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 53, 118-137. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.09.002

88.

Scarr

Weinberg

R. A.

(1976). IQ test performance of Black children adopted by White families. American Psychologist, 31, 726-739. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.31.10.726

89.

Schmidt

F. L.

Hunter

(2004). General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 86, 162-173. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.162

90.

Schmitt-Rodermund

Schröder

Obschonka

(2017). Studying entrepreneurial occupations in the Terman women. International Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1002/ijop.12450

91.

Seagoe

M. V.

(1975). Terman and the gifted. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann.

92.

Shurkin

J. N.

(1992). Terman’s kids: The groundbreaking study of how the gifted grow up. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

93.

Snyderman

Herrnstein

R. J.

(1983). Intelligence tests and the Immigration Act of 1924. American Psychologist, 38, 986-995.

94.

Sorokin

P. A.

(1956). Fads and foibles in modern sociology and related sciences. Chicago, IL: Henry Regency.

95.

Sörberg

Allebeck

Hemmingsson

(2014). IQ and somatic health in late adolescence. Intelligence, 44, 155-162. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.04.002

96.

Stanley

J. C.

(1974). Intellectual precocity. In Stanley

J. C.

Keating

D. P.

Fox

L. H.

(Eds.), Mathematical talent: Discovery, description, and development (pp. 1-22). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

97.

Stedman

L. M.

(1924). Education of gifted children. Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY: World Book.

98.

Stern

A. M.

(2005). Eugenics and historical memory in America. History Compass, 3, 1-11.

99.

Strand

Deary

I. J.

Smith

(2006). Sex differences in Cognitive Abilities Test scores: A UK national picture. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 463-480. doi:10.1348/000709905x50906

100.

Strenze

(2015). Intelligence and success. In Goldstein

Princiotta

Naglieri

J. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of intelligence: Evolutionary theory, historical perspective, and current concepts (pp. 405-413). New York, NY: Springer.

101.

Subotnik

R. F.

Karp

D. E.

Morgan

E. R.

(1989). High IQ children at midlife: An investigation into the generalizability of Terman’s genetic studies of genius. Roeper Review, 11, 139-144. doi:10.1080/02783198909553190

102.

Tallman

G. G.

(1928). A comparative study of identical and non-identical twins with respect to intelligence resemblances. In Whipple

G. M.

(Ed.), The twenty-seventh yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Nature and nurture: Part I. Their influence upon intelligence (pp. 83-86). Bloomington, IL: Public School.

103.

Taylor

H. C.

Russell

J. T.

(1939). The relationship of validity coefficients to the practical effectiveness of tests in selection: Discussion and tables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 23, 565-578. doi:10.1037/h0057079

104.

Terman

L. M.

(1905). A study in precocity and prematuration. American Journal of Psychology, 16, 145-183. doi:10.2307/1412123

105.

Terman

L. M.

(1906). Genius and stupidity: A study of some of the intellectual processes of seven “bright” and seven “stupid” boys. Pedagogical Seminary, 13, 307-373. doi:10.1080/08919402.1906.10534367

106.

Terman

L. M.

(1911). The Binet–Simon scale for measuring intelligence: Impresses gained by its application upon four hundred non-selected children. Psychological Clinic, 5, 199-206.

107.

Terman

L. M.

(1915). The mental hygiene of exceptional children. Pedogogical Seminary, 22, 529-537. doi:10.1080/08919402.1915.10533983

108.

Terman

L. M.

(1916). The measurement of intelligence: An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the Stanford revision and extension of the Binet–Simon Intelligence Scale. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.

109.

Terman

L. M.

(1918a). A experiment in infant education. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2, 219-228. doi:10.1037/h0071908

110.

Terman

L. M.

(1918b). Expert testimony in the case of Alberto Flores. Journal of Delinquency, 4, 145-164.

111.

Terman

L. M.

(1919). The intelligence of school children: How children differ in ability, the use of mental tests in school grading, and the proper education of exceptional children. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

112.

Terman

L. M.

(1921a). Intelligence and its measurement: A symposium—II. Journal of Educational Psychology, 12, 127-133. doi:10.1037/h0064940

113.

Terman

L. M.

(1921b). Mental growth and the IQ. Journal of Educational Psychology, 12, 401-407. doi:10.1037/h0069457

114.

Terman

L. M.

(1922a). Adventures in stupidity: A partial analysis of the intellectual inferiority of a college student. Scientific Monthly, 14, 24-40.

115.

Terman

L. M.

(1922b). A new approach to the study of genius. Psychological Review, 29, 310-318. doi:10.1037/h0071072

116.

Terman

L. M.

(1922c). The problem. In Terman

L. M.

(Ed.), Intelligence tests and school reorganization (pp. 1-31). Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY: World Book.

117.

Terman

L. M.

(1922d). The psychological determinist; or democracy and the I.Q. Journal of Educational Research, 6, 57-62. doi:10.1080/00220671.1922.10879281

118.

Terman

L. M.

(1922e). Were we born that way? World’s Work, 44, 649-660.

119.

Terman

L. M.

(1924a). The American Psychological Association. Science, 59, 546-548. doi:10.1126/science.59.1538.546

120.

Terman

L. M.

(1924b). The mental test as a psychological method. Psychological Review, 31, 93-117. doi:10.1037/h0070938

121.

Terman

L. M.

(1924c). The possibilities and limitations of training. Journal of Educational Research, 10, 335-343. doi:10.1080/00220671.1924.10879512

122.

Terman

L. M.

(1926). Genetic studies of genius: Vol. I. Mental and physical traits of a thousand gifted children (2nd ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

123.

Terman

L. M.

(1928a). The influence of nature and nurture upon intelligence scores: An evaluation of the evidence in Part I of the 1928 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 19, 362-373. doi:10.1037/h0071466

124.

Terman

L. M.

(1928b). The ultimate influence of standard tests. Journal of Educational Research, 17, 57-59. doi:10.1080/00220671.1928.10879813

125.

Terman

L. M.

(1932). Autobiography. In Murchison

(Ed.), A history of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 297-332). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

126.

Terman

L. M.

(1940). Personal reactions of the yearbook committee. In Whipple

G. M.

(Ed.), The thirty-ninth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Intelligence: Its nature and nurture: Part II. Comparative and critical exposition (pp. 460-467). Bloomington, IL: Public School.

127.

Terman

L. M.

(1954). The discovery and encouragement of exceptional talent. American Psychologist, 9, 221-230. doi:10.1037/h0060516

128.

Terman

L. M.

(1958). What education for the gifted should accomplish. In Henry

N. B.

(Ed.), The fifty-seventh yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Part II. Education for the gifted (pp. 15-19). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

129.

Terman

L. M.

Chase

J. M.

(1920). The psychology, biology and pedagogy of genius. Psychological Bulletin, 17, 397-409. doi:10.1037/h0073715

130.

Terman

L. M.

Childs

H. G.

(1912a). A tentative revision and extension of the Binet-Simon measuring scale of intelligence: Part I. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 61-74. doi:10.1037/h0075624

131.

Terman

L. M.

Childs

H. G.

(1912b). A tentative revision and extension of the Binet–Simon measuring scale of intelligence: Part II. Supplementary tests. 1. Generalization test: Interpretation of fables. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 133-143. doi:10.1037/h0073830

132.

Terman

L. M.

Childs

H. G.

(1912c). A tentative revision and extension of the Binet–Simon measuring scale of intelligence. Part II. Supplementary tests—continued. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 198-208. doi:10.1037/h0071576

133.

Terman

L. M.

Childs

H. G.

(1912d). A tentative revision and extension of the Binet–Simon measuring scale of intelligence: Part III. Summary and criticisms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 277-289. doi:10.1037/h0073453

134.

Terman

L. M.

Fenton

J. C.

(1921). Preliminary report on a gifted juvenile author. Journal of Applied Psychology, 5, 163-178. doi:10.1037/h0074962

135.

Terman

L. M.

Lyman

Ordahl

Galbreath

Talbert

(1915). The Stanford revision of the Binet–Simon scale and some results from its application to 1000 non-selected children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 6, 551-562. doi:10.1037/h0075455

136.

Terman

L. M.

Merrill

M. A.

(1937). Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new Stanford–Binet tests of intelligence. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

137.

Terman

L. M.

Oden

M. H.

(1947). Genetic studies of genius: Vol. IV. The gifted child grows up: Twenty-five years’ follow-up of a superior group. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

138.

Terman

L. M.

Oden

M. H.

(1959). Genetic studies of genius: Vol. V. The gifted group at mid-life. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

139.

Tizard

(1974). IQ and race. Nature, 247, 316. doi:10.1038/247316a0

140.

Vialle

(1994). “Termanal” science? The work of Lewis Terman revisited. Roeper Review, 17(1), 32-38. doi:10.1080/02783199409553614

141.

Wai

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

(2005). Creativity and occupational accomplishments among intellectually precocious youths: An age 13 to age 33 longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 484-492. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.484

142.

Wai

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

Steiger

J. H.

(2010). Accomplishment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and its relation to STEM educational dose: A 25-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 860-871. doi:10.1037/a0019454

143.

Warne

R. T.

(2012). History and development of above-level testing of the gifted. Roeper Review, 34, 183-193. doi:10.1080/02783193.2012.686425

144.

Warne

R. T.

(2016a). Five reasons to put the g back into giftedness: An argument for applying the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory of intelligence to gifted education research and practice. Gifted Child Quarterly, 60, 3-15. doi:10.1177/0016986215605360

145.

Warne

R. T.

(2016b). Testing Spearman’s hypothesis with Advanced Placement examination data. Intelligence, 57, 87-95. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.05.002

146.

Warne

R. T.

Astle

Hill

J. C.

(2018). What do undergraduates learn about human intelligence? An analysis of introductory psychology textbooks. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 6, 32-50. doi:10.1037/arc0000038.

147.

Warne

R. T.

Godwin

L. R.

Smith

K. V.

(2013). Are there more gifted people than would be expected in a normal distribution? An investigation of the overabundance hypothesis. Journal of Advanced Academics, 24, 224-241. doi:10.1177/1932202x13507969

148.

Warne

R. T.

Liu

J. K.

(2017). Income differences among grade skippers and non-grade skippers across genders in the Terman sample, 1936-1976. Learning and Instruction, 47, 1-12. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.004

149.

Weinberg

R. A.

Scarr

Waldman

I. D.

(1992). The Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study: A follow-up of IQ test performance at adolescence. Intelligence, 16, 117-135. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90028-p

150.

Wicherts

J. M.

Dolan

C. V.

Hessen

D. J.

Oosterveld

van Baal

G. C. M.

Boomsma

D. I.

Span

M. M.

(2004). Are intelligence tests measurement invariant over time? Investigating the nature of the Flynn effect. Intelligence, 32, 509-537. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.07.002

151.

Wierenga

L. M.

Sexton

J. A.

Laake

Giedd

J. N.

Tamnes

C. K.

, & Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics Study. (1918). A key characteristic of sex differences in the developing brain: Greater variability in brain structure of boys than girls. Cerebral Cortex, 28, 2741-2751. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx154

152.

Wingfield

A. H.

(1928). Twins and orphans: The inheritance of intelligence. London, England: J. M. Dent.

153.

Winkler

D. L.

Jolly

J. L.

(2014). Lewis M. Terman: A misunderstood legacy (1877-1956). In Robinson

Jolly

J. L.

(Eds.), A century of contributions to gifted education: Illuminating lives (pp. 64-78). New York, NY: Routledge.

154.

Wrulich

Brunner

Stadler

Schalke

Keller

Martin

(2014). Forty years on: Childhood intelligence predicts health in middle adulthood. Health Psychology, 33, 292-296. doi:10.1037/a0030727

155.

Yerkes

R. M.

(1917). The Binet versus the point scale method of measuring intelligence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1, 111-122. doi:10.1037/h0070364

156.

Yerkes

R. M.

(1921). Psychological examining in the United States army. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

157.

Yoakum

C. S.

Yerkes

R. M.

(1920). Army mental tests. New York, NY: Henry Holt.

158.

Zagorsky

J. L.

(2007). Do you have to be smart to be rich? The impact of IQ on wealth, income and financial distress. Intelligence, 35, 489-501. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.02.003