Social scientists describe culture as either coherent or incoherent and political dissent as either unifying or divisive. This article moves beyond such dichotomies. Content, historical, and network analyses of public debates on how to organize four lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) Washington marches provide evidence for an integrative position. Rather than just describe consistencies or contradictions, we contend that the key analytic challenge is to explain the organization of differences. We propose one way of doing this using the mechanism of a cultural anchor. Within and across marches, a small collection of ideas remains fixed in the national conversation, yet in a way that allows activists to address their internal diversity and respond to unfolding historical events. These results suggest that activists do not simply organize around their similarities but, through cultural anchors, they use their commonalities to build a thinly coherent foundation that can also support their differences. Situated at the nexus of culture, social movements, sexualities, and networks, this article demonstrates how the anchoring mechanism works in the context of LGBT political organizing.
AlexanderJeffrey C.2006. The Civil Sphere. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2.
AmentaEdwinCarenNealOlaskySheera JoyStobaughJames E.2009. “All the Movements Fit to Print: Who, What, When, Where, and Why SMO Families Appeared in the New York Times in the Twentieth Century.” American Sociological Review74:636–56.
3.
AndersonBenedict. 1983. Imagined Communities. New York: Verso.
4.
ArmstrongElizabeth A.2002. Forging Gay Identities: Organizing Sexuality in San Francisco, 1950–1994. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5.
BaldassarriDelia. 2005. La Semplice Arte di Votare. Bologna, Italy: Mulino.
6.
BaldassarriDeliaDianiMario. 2007. “The Integrative Power of Civic Networks.” American Journal of Sociology113:735–80.
7.
BaldassarriDeliaGoldbergAmir. 2010. “Political Belief Networks: Socio-cognitive Heterogeneity in American Public Opinion.” Working Paper, Princeton University, Department of Sociology.
8.
BalserDeborah B.1997. “The Impact of Environmental Factors on Factionalism and Schism in Social Movement Organizations.” Social Forces76:199–228.
9.
BarberLucy G.2002. Marching on Washington: The Forging of an American Political Tradition. Berkeley: University of California Press.
10.
BearmanPeter. 1991. “Army Unit Solidarity, Group Norms, and Desertion: Desertion as Localism in the U.S. Civil War.” Social Forces70:321–42.
11.
BearmanPeterFarisRobertMoodyJames. 1999. “Blocking the Future: New Solutions for Old Problems in Historical Social Science.” Social Science History23:501–533.
12.
BearmanPeterStovelKatherine. 2000. “Becoming a Nazi: A Model for Narrative Networks.” Poetics27:69–90.
13.
BeckerPenny Edgell. 1998. “Making Inclusive Communities: Congregations and the ‘Problem’ of Race.” Social Problems45:451–72.
14.
BeiselNicola. 1993. “Morals versus Art: Censorship, the Politics of Interpretation, and the Victorian Nude.” American Sociological Review58:145–62.
15.
BenedictRuth. 1934. Patterns of Culture. Houghton Mifflin: Boston, MA.
16.
BenfordRobert D.1993. “Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement.” Social Forces71:677–701.
17.
BenfordRobert D.SnowDavid A.2000. “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology26:611–39.
18.
BerezinMabel. 1994. “Theatrical Form and Political Meaning: State Subsidized Theater, Ideology and the Language of Style in Fascist Italy.” American Journal of Sociology99:1237–86.
19.
BernsteinMary. 1997. “Celebration and Suppression: The Strategic Uses of Identity by the Lesbian and Gay Movement.” American Journal of Sociology103:531–65.
20.
BerubeAllan. 1990. Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two. New York: Penguin Books.
21.
BiernackiRichard. 2000. “Language and the Shift from Signs to Practices in Cultural Inquiry.” History and Theory39:289–310.
22.
BlauPeter M.1974. “Parameters of Social Structure.” American Sociological Review39:615–35.
23.
BonacichPhillip. 1972a. “Factoring and Weighting Approaches to Status Scores and Clique Identification.” Journal of Mathematical Sociology2:113–20.
24.
BonacichPhillip. 1972b. “Technique for Analyzing Overlapping Memberships.” Sociological Methodology4:176–85.
25.
BonacichPhillip. 1992. “Power in Positively Connected Exchange Networks: A Critical Review.” Pp. 21–40 in Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 9, edited by LawlerE. J.MarkovskyB.RidgewayC.WalkerH. A.Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
26.
BorgattiStephen P.1999. “Models of Core/Periphery Structures.” Social Networks21:375–95.
27.
BorgattiStephen P.EverettMartin G.1997. “Network Analysis of 2-Mode Data.” Social Networks19:243–69.
28.
BorgattiStephen P.EverettMartin G.1999. “Models of Core/Periphery Structures.” Social Networks21:375–95.
29.
BorgattiStephen P.EverettMartin G.FreemanLin C.2002. Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.
30.
Brown-SaracinoJaponicaGhazianiAmin. 2009. “The Constraints of Culture: Evidence from the Chicago Dyke March.” Cultural Sociology3:51–75.
31.
BurtRonald. 1992. Structural Holes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
32.
BurtRonald. 2005. Brokerage and Closure. New York: Oxford University Press.
33.
CalhounCraig. 1991. “The Problem of Identity in Collective Action.” Pp. 51–75 in Macro-Micro Linkages in Sociology, edited by HuberJ.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
34.
CarleyKathleen. 1986. “An Approach for Relating Social Structure to Cognitive Structure.” Journal of Mathematical Sociology12:137–89.
35.
CarleyKathleen. 1993. “Coding Choices for Textual Analysis: A Comparison of Content Analysis and Map Analysis.” Sociological Methodology23:75–126.
36.
CarsonClayborne. 1981. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
37.
CastellsManuel. 1997. The Power of Identity. Oxford: Blackwell.
38.
ChaunceyGeorge. 1994. Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940. New York: Basic Books.
39.
CliffordJamesMarcusGeorge E.1986. “Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography.” Berkeley: University of California Press.
40.
CohenCathy J.1999. The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
41.
CohenJacob. 1960. “A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales.” Educational and Psychological Measurement20:37–46.
42.
CohenJean L.1985. “Strategy or Identity: New Theoretical Paradigms and Contemporary Social Movements.” Social Research52:663–716.
43.
CollinsRandall. 1975. Conflict Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science. New York: Academic Press.
44.
CornwellBenjaminHarrisonJill Ann. 2004. “Union Members and Voluntary Associations.” American Sociological Review69:862–81.
45.
CoserLewis. 1956. The Functions of Social Conflict. New York: The Free Press.
46.
CreedW. E. DouglasLangstraatJeffrey A.ScullyMaureen A.2002. “A Picture of the Frame: Frame Analysis as Technique and as Politics.” Organizational Research Methods5:34–55.
47.
CreedW. E. DouglasScullyMaureen A.AustinJohn R.2002. “Clothes Make the Person? The Tailoring of Legitimating Accounts and the Social Construction of Identity.” Organization Science13:475–96.
48.
CrimpDouglas. 1996. AIDS: Cultural Analysis, Cultural Activism. Cambridge: MIT Press.
49.
D’AndradeRoy. 1984. “Cultural Meaning Systems.” Pp. 88–119 in Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, edited by ShwederR. A.LeVineR. A.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
50.
D’AndradeRoyStraussClaudia. 1992. Human Motives and Cultural Models. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
51.
D’EmilioJohn. 1983. Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
52.
D’EmilioJohn. 2002. The World Turned: Essays on Gay History, Politics, and Culture. Durham: Duke University Press.
53.
DianiMario. 2009. “The Structural Bases of Protest Events: Multiple Memberships and Civil Society.” Acta Sociologica52:85–87.
54.
DiMaggioPaul. 1997. “Culture and Cognition.” Annual Review of Sociology23:263–87.
55.
DorianPatrickFararoThomas. 1998. The Problem of Solidarity: Theories and Models. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Publishers.
56.
DubermanMartin BaumlVicinusMarthaChaunceyGeorge. 1989. Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past. New York: Nal Books.
57.
DurkheimEmile. [1893] 1984. The Division of Labor in Society. New York: Free Press.
58.
EarlJenniferMartinAndrewMcCarthyJohn D.SouleSarah A.2004. “The Use of Newspaper Data in the Study of Collective Action.” Annual Review of Sociology30:65–80.
59.
EntmanRobert M.1991. “Framing U.S. Coverage of International News: Contrasts in Narratives of the KAL and Iran Air Incidents.” Journal of Communication41:6–27.
60.
EntmanRobert M.1993. “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm.” Journal of Communication43:51–58.
61.
EpsteinSteven. 1999. “Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy.” Pp. 30–90 in The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics, edited by AdamB. D.DuyvendakJ. W.KrouwelA.Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
62.
EyermanRon. 2002. “Music in Movement: Cultural Politics and Old and New Social Movements.” Qualitative Sociology25:443–58.
63.
FineGary Alan. 1979. “Small Groups and Cultural Creation: The Idioculture of Little League Baseball Teams.” American Sociological Review44:733–45.
64.
FishbeinMartinAjzenIcek. 1975. Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
65.
FligsteinNeil. 1997. “Social Skill and Institutional Theory.” American Behavioral Scientist40:397–405.
66.
FranzosiRoberto. 1997. “Mobilization and Counter-Mobilization Processes: From the ‘Red Years’ (1919–20) to the ‘Black Years’ (1921–22) in Italy. A New Methodological Approach to the Study of Narrative Data.” Theory and Society26:275–304.
67.
FranzosiRoberto. 2004. From Words to Numbers: Narrative, Data, and Social Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
68.
FriedlandRogerAlfordRobert R.1991. “Bringing Society Back In: Symbols, Practices, and Institutional Contradictions.” Pp. 232–63 in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by PowellW. W.DiMaggioP. J.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
69.
FriedmanDebraMcAdamDoug. 1992. “Collective Identity and Activism: Networks, Choices, and the Life of a Social Movement.” Pp. 156–73 in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, edited by MorrisA.MuellerC. M.New Haven: Yale University Press.
70.
GamsonJoshua. 1989. “Silence, Death, and the Invisible Enemy: AIDS Activism and Social Movement ‘Newness.’” Social Problems36:351–67.
71.
GamsonJoshua. 1995. “Must Identity Movements Self-Destruct? A Queer Dilemma.” Social Problems42:390–407.
72.
GamsonJoshua. 1997. “Messages of Exclusion: Gender, Movements, and Symbolic Boundaries.” Gender & Society11:178–99.
73.
GamsonWilliam A.1975. The Strategy of Social Protest. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
74.
GamsonWilliam A.1992. “The Social Psychology of Collective Action.” Pp. 53–76 in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, edited by MorrisA. D.MuellerC. M.New Haven: Yale University Press.
75.
GeertzClifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
76.
GhazianiAmin. 2008. The Dividends of Dissent: How Conflict and Culture Work in Lesbian and Gay Marches on Washington. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
77.
GhazianiAmin. 2009. “An ‘Amorphous Mist’? The Problem of Measurement in the Study of Culture.” Theory and Society38:581–612.
78.
GhazianiAminFineGary Alan. 2008. “Infighting and Ideology: How Conflict Informs the Local Culture of the Chicago Dyke March.” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society20:51–67.
79.
GhazianiAminVentrescaMarc J.2005. “Keywords and Cultural Change: Frame Analysis of Business Model Public Talk, 1975–2000.” Sociological Forum20:523–59.
80.
GiddensAnthony. 1984. The Constitution of Society. Berkeley: University of California Press.
81.
GoldbergAmir. Forthcoming. “Mapping Shared Understandings Using Relational Class Analysis: The Case of the Cultural Omnivore Reexamined.” American Journal of Sociology.
82.
GoldbergAmirDiMaggioPaulShepherdHana. 2008. “Science v. Religion? A New Look at an Old Opposition Using Data on Public Attitudes in the U.S.” Presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Sociological Association, Boston, MA.
83.
GottdienerMark. 1995. Postmodern Semiotics: Material Culture and the Forms of Postmodern Life. Oxford: Blackwell.
84.
GouldDeborah B.2009. Moving Politics: Emotion and ACT UP’s Fight Against AIDS. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
85.
GouldRoger. 1995. Insurgent Identities: Class, Community, and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
86.
GranovetterMark S.1973. “The Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology78:1360–80.
87.
GriswoldWendy. 1987a. “The Fabrication of Meaning: Literary Interpretation in the United States, Great Britain, and the West Indies.” American Journal of Sociology92:1077–1117.
88.
GriswoldWendy. 1987b. “A Methodological Framework for the Sociology of Culture.” Sociological Methodology17:1–35.
89.
HannerzUlf. 1992. Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning. New York: Columbia University Press.
90.
HuntLynn. 2004. Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.
91.
KaminskiElizabethTaylorVerta. 2008. “We’re Not Just Lip-Synching Up Here: Music and Collective Identity in Drag Performances.” Pp. 47–75 in Identity Work in Social Movements, edited by RegerJ.MyersD. J.EinwohnerR. L.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
92.
KeenLisaGoldbergSuzanne B.2000. Strangers to the Law: Gay People on Trial. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
93.
KirschMax H.2000. Queer Theory and Social Change. New York: Routledge.
94.
KlandermansBert. 1988. “The Formation and Mobilization of Consensus.” International Social Movement Research1:173–96.
95.
KlinknerPhilip A.SmithRogers M.1999. The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
96.
KolbeRichard H.BurnettMelissa S.1991. “Content-Analysis Research: An Examination of Applications with Directives for Improving Research Reliability and Objectivity.” Journal of Consumer Research18:243–50.
97.
LangKurtLangGladys Engel. 1961. Collective Dynamics. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company.
98.
LaranaEnriqueJohnstonHankGusfieldJoseph R.1994. New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
99.
Levi-StraussClaude. 1962. The Savage Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
100.
LevitskySandra R.2007. “Niche Activism: Constructing a Unified Movement Identity in a Heterogeneous Organizational Field.” Mobilization12:271–86.
101.
LichtermanPaul. 1995. “Piecing Together a Multicultural Community: Cultural Differences in Community Building among Grassroots Environments.” Social Problems42:513–34.
LougheryJohn. 1998. The Other Side of Silence: Men’s Lives and Gay Identities: A Twentieth-Century History. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
104.
MalinowskiBronislaw. 1945. The Dynamics of Culture Change. New Haven: Yale University Press.
105.
MartinJoanne. 1992. Cultures in Organizations. New York: Oxford University Press.
106.
McAdamDoug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
107.
McGuireWilliam J.1960. “A Syllogistic Analysis of Cognitive Relationships.” Pp. 65–111 in Attitude, Organization, and Change, edited by HovlandC. I.RosenberM. J.New Haven: Yale University Press.
108.
McGuireWilliam J.1969. “The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Change.” Pp. 136–314 in The Handbook of Social Psychology, edited by LindzeyG.AronsonE.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
109.
MeadMargaret. 1928. Coming of Age in Samoa. New York: Harper Perennial.
110.
MeierAugustRudwickElliott. 1973. CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968. New York: Oxford University Press.
111.
MelucciAlberto. 1988. “Getting Involved: Identity and Mobilization in Social Movements.” International Social Movement Research1:329–48.
112.
MelucciAlberto. 1995. “The Process of Collective Identity.” Pp. 41–63 in Social Movements and Culture, edited by JohnstonH.KlandermansB.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
113.
MillsC. Wright. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. London: Oxford University Press.
114.
MischeAnnPattisonPhilippa. 2000. “Composing a Civic Arena: Publics, Projects, and Social Settings.” Poetics27:163–94.
115.
MohrJohn W.1998. “Measuring Meaning Structures.” Annual Review of Sociology24:345–70.
116.
MohrJohn W.LeeHelene K.2000. “From Affirmative Action to Outreach: Discourse Shifts at the University of California.” Poetics28:47–71.
117.
MoodyJamesWhiteDouglas R.2003. “Structural Cohesion and Embeddedness: A Hierarchical Concept of Social Groups.” American Sociological Review68:103–127.
118.
MucciaroniGary. 2008. Same Sex, Different Politics: Success and Failure in the Struggles over Gay Rights. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
119.
MushabenJoyce Marie. 1989. “The Struggle Within: Conflict, Consensus, and Decision Making among National Coordinators and Grass-Roots Organizers in the West German Peace Movement.” International Social Movement Research2:267–98.
120.
NeuendorfKimberly A.2002. The Content Analysis Guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
121.
OrtizDavid G.MyersDaniel J.WallsEugeneDiazMaria-Elena D.2005. “Where Do We Stand with Newspaper Data?” Mobilization10:397–419.
122.
OrtnerSherry B.1984. “Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties.” Comparative Studies in Society and History26:126–66.
123.
ParsonsTalcott. 1937. The Structure of Social Action. New York: Free Press.
124.
PollettaFrancesca. 2002. Freedom Is an Endless Meeting: Democracy in American Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
125.
PollettaFrancesca. 2006. It Was Like a Fever: Storytelling in Protest and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
126.
PollettaFrancescaJasperJames M.2001. “Collective Identity and Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology27:283–305.
127.
PressAndrea. 1994. “The Sociology of Cultural Reception: Notes toward an Emerging Paradigm.” Pp.221–45 in The Sociology of Culture, edited by CraneD.Oxford: Blackwell.
128.
QuinnNaomi. 1996. “Culture and Contradiction: The Case of Americans Reasoning about Marriage.” Ethos24:391–425.
129.
RaginCharles C.1994. Constructing Social Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
RobinsonPaul. 2005. Queer Wars: The New Gay Right and Its Critics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
132.
RoscignoVincent J.DanaherWilliam F.2001. “The Voice of Southern Labor: Radio, Music, and Textile Strikes, 1929–1934.” American Sociological Review66:21–48.
133.
Sahlin-AnderssonKerstin. 1996. “Imitating by Editing Success: The Construction of Organizational Fields.” Pp. 69–92 in Translating Organizational Change, edited by Czarniawska-JoergesB.SevonG.Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
134.
SahlinsMarshall. 1985. Islands of History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
135.
SchaeferDavid R.2009. “Resource Variation and the Development of Cohesion in Exchange Networks.” American Sociological Review74:551–72.
136.
SchudsonMichael. 1989. “How Culture Works: Perspectives from Media Studies on the Efficacy of Symbols.” Theory and Society18:153–80.
137.
SewellWilliam H.Jr.1992. “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation.” American Journal of Sociology98:1–29.
138.
SewellWilliam H.Jr.1996. “Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille.” Theory and Society25:841–81.
139.
SewellWilliam H.Jr.1999. “The Concept(s) of Culture.” Pp. 35–61 in Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture, edited by BonnellV. E.HuntL.Berkeley: University of California Press.
140.
ShivelyJoEllen. 1992. “Cowboys and Indians: Perceptions of Western Films among American Indians and Anglos.” American Sociological Review57:725–34.
141.
ShwedUriBearmanPeter. 2010. “The Temporal Structure of Scientific Consensus Formation.” American Sociological Review75:817–40.
142.
SimmelGeorg. 1955. Conflict and the Web of Group-Affiliations. Translated by BendixR.New York: The Free Press.
143.
SmelserNeil J.1963. Theory of Collective Behavior. New York: Free Press.
144.
SmithNadine. 2000. “Three Marches, Many Lessons.” Pp. 438–50 in Creating Change: Sexuality, Public Policy, and Civil Rights, edited by D’EmilioJ.TurnerW. B.VaidU.New York: St. Martin’s Press.
145.
SmithTammy. 2007a. The Boundaries of Conflict: Violence and Displacement on the Italo-Yugoslav Border. New York: Columbia University.
146.
SmithTammy. 2007b. “Narrative Boundaries and the Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict and Conciliation.” Poetics35:22–46.
147.
SnowDavid A.RochfordE. BurkeJr.WordenSteven K.BenfordRobert D.1986. “Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation.” American Sociological Review51:464–81.
148.
SpillmanLyn. 1995. “Culture, Social Structures, and Discursive Fields.” Current Perspectives in Social Theory15:129–54.
149.
SpillmanLyn. 1999. “Enriching Exchange: Cultural Dimensions of Markets.” American Journal of Economics and Sociology58:1047–73.
150.
StarSusan Leigh. 1989. “The Structure of Ill-structured Solutions: Boundary Objects and Heterogeneous Distributed Problem Solving.” Pp. 37–54 in Readings in Distributed Artificial Intelligence, edited by HuhnsM.GasserL.Menlo Park, CA: Morgan Kaufman.
151.
StarSusan LeighGriesemerJames R.1989. “Institutional Ecology, ‘Translations,’ and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907–1939.” Social Studies of Science19:387–420.
152.
SteinbergMarc W.1999. “The Talk and Back Talk of Collective Action: A Dialogic Analysis of Repertoires of Discourse among Nineteenth-Century English Cotton Spinners.” American Journal of Sociology105:736–80.
StinchcombeArthur L.2005. The Logic of Social Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
155.
StoneAmy L.2010. “Diversity, Dissent, and Decision-Making: The Challenge to LGBT Politics.” GLQ16:465–72.
156.
StrangDavidMeyerJohn W.1994. “Institutional Conditions for Diffusion.” Pp. 100–112 in Institutional Environments and Organizations: Structural Complexity and Individualism, edited by ScottW. R.MeyerJ. W.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
157.
StreitmatterRodger. 1995. Unspeakable: The Rise of the Gay and Lesbian Press in America. Boston: Faber and Faber.
158.
SwidlerAnn. 1986. “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.” American Sociological Review51:273–86.
159.
SwidlerAnn. 2001. Talk of Love: How Culture Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
160.
TarrowSidney. 1998. Power in Movement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
161.
TaylorVerta. 1989. “Social Movement Continuity: The Women’s Movement in Abeyance.” American Sociological Review54:761–75.
162.
TaylorVertaWhittierNancy E.1992. “Collective Identity in Social Movement Communities.” Pp.104–129 in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, edited by MorrisA. D.McClurgC.New Haven: Yale University Press.
163.
TillyCharles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
164.
TillyCharles. 1997. “Parliamentarization of Popular Contention in Great Britain, 1758–1834.” Theory and Society26:245–73.
165.
TillyCharles. 2002. Stories, Identities, and Political Change. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
166.
TurnerVictor. 1967. The Forest of Symbols. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
167.
TylorEdward Barrett. [1871] 1958. Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. Gloucester, MA: Smith.
168.
Wagner-PacificiRobinSchwartzBarry. 1991. “The Vietnam Veterans Memorial: Commemorating a Difficult Past.” American Journal of Sociology97:376–420.
169.
WaiteLori G.2001. “Divided Consciousness: The Impact of Black Elite Consciousness on the 1966 Chicago Freedom Movement.” Pp. 170–203 in Oppositional Consciousness: The Subjective Roots of Social Protest, edited by MansbridgeJ.MorrisA.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
170.
WarnerMichael. 1993. Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
171.
WhiteHarrison C.BoormanScott A.BreigerRonald L.1976. “Social Structure from Multiple Networks.” American Journal of Sociology81:730–80.
172.
WhittierNancy. 1997. “Political Generations, Micro-Cohorts, and the Transformation of Social Movements.” American Sociological Review62:760–78.
173.
WilliamsRaymond. 1976. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
