Does urban form affect travel choices and thus C02 emissions by individuals? If this is the case, then urban form and policies that influence it deserve serious attention in the context of long-term climate policy. To address this issue, we examine the impact of urban density on commuting behavior, and the consequences for C02 emissions. The empirical investigation is based on an instrumental variable approach (IV), so as to take account of endogeneity of residence location. We decompose travel demand into components related to modal split and commuting distance by each mode.
AnasA.ArnottR.SmallK.A. (1989). “Urban Spatial Structure.” Journal of Economic Literature36(3): 1426-1464.
2.
AngristJ. D.EvansW.N. (1998). “Children and their Parents' Labor Supply: Evidence from Exogenous Variation in Family Size.” American Economic Review88(3): 450-477.
3.
AngristJ. D.KruegerA.B. (2001). “Instrumental Variables and the Search for Identification: From Supply and Demand to Natural Experiments.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives15(4): 69-85.
4.
BagleyM. N.MokhtarianP.L. (2002). “The Impact of Residential Neighborhood Type on Travel Behavior: A Structural Equations Modeling Approach.” The Annals of Regional Science36: 279-297.
5.
BentoA.M.CropperM.L.MobarakA.M.VinhaK. (2005). “The Effects of Urban Spatial Structure on Travel Demand in the United States.” The Review of Economics and Statistics87(3): 466-478.
6.
BertaudA. (2003). “Clearing the Air in Atlanta: Transit and Smart Growth or Conventional Economics?” Journal of Urban Economics54(3): 379400.
7.
BoametM.G.GreenwaldM.J. (2000). “Land Use, Urban Design, and Non-Work Travel: Reproducing for Portland. Oregon Empirical Tests from Other Urban Areas” Transportation Research Record1722: 27-37.
8.
BoarnetM.SarmientoS. (1998). “Can Land Use Policy Really Affect Travel Behavior? A Study of the Link between Non-Work Travel and Land Use Characteristics.” Urban Studies35(7): 1155-1169.
9.
BurchfieldM.OvermanH.G.PugaD.TurnerM.A. (2006). “Causes of Sprawl: A Portrait from Space.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics121(2): 587-633.
10.
CaoX.MokhtarianP. L.HandyS.L. (2007). “Do Changes in Neighborhood Characteristics Lead to Changes in Travel Behavior? A Structural Equations Modeling Approach.” Transportation34(5): 535-556.
11.
CBS (2004). Statistics Netherlands Web Magazine. Central Bureau of Statistics, CBS. The Netherlands. http://www.cbs.n
12.
CraneR.CrepeauR. (1998). “Does Neighborhood Design Influence Travel? A Behavioral Analysis of Travel Diary and GIS data.” Transportation Research D3(4): 225-238.
13.
Dender vanK. (2003). “Transport Taxes with Multiple Trip Purposes.” Scandinavian Journal of Economics105(2): 295-310.
14.
EC (2006). TREMOVE Transport Model European Commission. EC-DG Environment. Brussels.
15.
ElkinsP. (1996). “How Large a Carbon Tax is Justified by Secondary Benefits of the CO, Abatement?” Resource and Energy Economics18(2): 161-187.
16.
EPA (2001). EPA Guidance: Improving Air Quality through Land Use Activities. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, Washington, DC.
17.
EwingR.CerveroR. (2001). “Travel and the Built Environment: A Synthesis Discussion.” Transportation Research Record1780: 87-114.
18.
FrankelJ.A.RoseA.K. (2005). “Is Trade Good or Bad for the Environment? Sorting Out the Causality.” Review of Economics and Statistics87( 1): 85-91.
19.
FujitaM. (1989). Urban Economic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
20.
FujitaM.KrugmanPR.VenablesA.J. (1999). The Spatial Economy: Cities, Regions, and International Trade. MIT Press. Cambridge MA, US.
21.
GiulianoG.NarayanD. (2003). “Another Look at Travel Patterns and Urban Form: The US and Great Britain.” Urban Studies40(11): 2295-2312.
22.
GordonP.KumarA.RichardsonH.W. (1989). “Congestion, Changing Metropolitan Structure, and City Size in The United States.” International Regional Science Review12(1). 45-56.
23.
GraziF.van den BerghJ.C.J.M. (2008). “Spatial Organization, Transport, and Climate Change: Comparing Instruments of Spatial Planning and Policy.” Ecological Economics, doi:10.1016/j.ecole-con.2008.01.014
24.
GreeneD.L.SchaferA. (2003). “Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from U.S. transportation.” Report, Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, VA.
25.
GreenwaldM.J.BoarnetM.G. (2001). “Built Environment as Determinant of Walking Behavior: Analyzing Nonwork Pedestrian Travel in Portland, Oregon.” Transportation Research Record1780: 33-42.
26.
HamiltonB.RoellA. (1982). “Wasteful Commuting.” The Journal of Political Economy90(5): 1035-1053
27.
HandyS.CaoX.MokhtarianP. (2005). “Correlation or Causality between the Built Environment and Travel Behavior? Evidence from Northern California.” Transportation Research D10(6):427-144.
28.
HandyS.L.CliftonK.J. (2001). “Local Shopping as a Strategy for Reducing Automobile Travel.” Transportation28: 317-346.
29.
HandyS. (1996). “Methodologies for Exploring the Link between Urban Form and Travel Behavior.” Transportation Research D1(2): 151-165.
30.
HarveyR.O.ClarkW.A.V. (1965). “The Nature and Economics of Urban Sprawl.” Land Economics41(1): 1-9.
31.
IEA (2006). World Energy Outlook. International Energy Agency. IEA Paris.
32.
IEA (2004). “Energy Technologies for a Sustainable Future: Transport. IEA Technology Briefs.” Report, International Energy Agency, IEA, Paris.
33.
Jara-DiazS. (2007). Transport Economic Theory. Elsevier.
34.
KenworthyJ.LaubeF. (1999). “A Global Review of Energy Use in Urban Transport Systems and its Implications for Urban Transport and Land-Use Policy.” Transportation Quarterly53(4): 23-48. ’
35.
KrizekK. (2003). “Residential Relocation and Changes in Urban Travel: Does Neighborhood-Scale Urban Form Matter?” Journal of the American Planning Association69:, 265-281.
36.
LevinsonD.M.KumarA. (1997). “Density and the Journey to Work.” Growth and Change28(2): 147-172.
37.
McDonaldJ. (1989). “Econometric Studies of Urban Population Density: A Survey.” Journal of Urban Economics26(3): 361-385.
38.
NewmanP.KenworthyJ. (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Washington. DC: Island Press.
39.
NewmanP.KenworthyJ. (1989a) “Gasoline Consumption and Cities.” Journal of the American Planning Association Winter: 24-37.
40.
NewmanP.KenworthyJ. (1989b). Cities and Automobile Dependence: An International Sourcebook. Brooksfield VT: Gower Technical.
41.
NiemeierD.RutherfordG. (1994). “Nonmotorized Transportation, NPTS: Travel Mode Special Reports.” Report, US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Information Management, Washington, DC.
42.
OECD (2007). “2007-2008 Programme of Work of the OECD Territorial Development Policy Committee.” Report, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD, Paris.
43.
vanOmmeren J.DargayJ. (2006). “The Optimal Choice of Commuting Speed: Consequences for Commuting Time, Distance and Costs.” Journal of Transport Economics and Policy40(2): 279-296.
44.
PushkarevB.ZupanJ.M. (1977). Public Transportation and Land Use Policy. Bloomington, IN: Bloomington University Press.
45.
SchaferA.VictorD.G. (2000). “The Future Mobility of the World Population.” Transportation Research A34(3): 171-205.
46.
SchimekP. (1996) “Household Motor Vehicle Ownership and Use: How Much Does Residential Density Matter?” Transportation Research Record1552: 120-125.
47.
SchwanenT.MokhtarianP.L. (2005). “What if You Live in the Wrong Neighborhood? The Impact of Residential Neighborhood Type Dissonance on Distance Travelled.” Transportation Research D10 (2): 127-151.
48.
SingletonR.A.StraitsB.C. (1999). Approach to Social Research. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
49.
WinstonC. (1985). “Conceptual Developments in the Economics of Transportation: An Interpretive Survey.” Journal of Economic Literature23( 1): 57-94.
50.
WooldridgeJ.M. (2002). Econometrics Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge. MA: MIT press.
