Some fungi are capable of producing substances that are potent, acute toxins or carcinogens to both animals and humans. These toxic agents are generally called mycotoxins. The diseases these fungi cause are mycotoxicoses, and their impact on domestic animals in terms of decreased growth rate, abnormal reproduction and early death has long been recognized. The impact of these fungi in human carcinogenesis has been the subject of intensive study only since the early 1960s. Mycotoxins of worldwide importance such as aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2; deoxynivalenol; zearalenone; fumonisin B1; T-2 toxin; and ochratoxin A, produced by fungi on pre- and post-harvest food and feeds, have led to contamination of the food chain, resulting in severe economic losses and serious health problems in human beings and livestock. In humans, the presence of mycotoxins in foods can be cumulative, leading to cancers and immune-deficiency diseases. This paper discusses the global deleterious effects of the mycotoxins, their metabolism and detoxification, and control measures applicable within the framework of integrated pest management systems.
AbarcaM. L.AccensiF.BragulatM. R., and CabanesF. J. (2001), ‘Current importance of ochratoxin A-producing Aspergillus spp’, Journal Food Protection, Vol 64, pp 903–906.
2.
AndersonD., and ConningD. M. (1993), Experimental Toxicology, The Basic Issues, 2 ed, Royal Society of Chemistry, London.
3.
AppletonB. S.GoetchiusM. P., and CampbellT. C. (1982), ‘Linear dose-response curve for the hepatic macromolecular binding of aflatoxin B1 in rats at very low exposures', Cancer Research, Vol 42, pp 3659–3662.
4.
AutrupH.EssigmannJ. M.CroyR. G.TrumpB. F.WoganG. N., and HarrisC. C. (1979), ‘Metabolism of aflatoxin B1-guanine adduct and hepatitis B virus infection in areas with different liver cancer incidence in Kenya’, Cancer Research, Vol 47, pp 3430–3433.
5.
AvantaggiatoG.HavenaarR., and ViscontiA. (2004), ‘Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro gastrointestinal model, and the binding efficacy of activated carbon and other adsorbent materials’, Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Vol 42, pp 817–824.
6.
BaertschiS. W.RaneyK. D.ShimadaT.HarrisT. M., and GuengerichF. P. (1989), ‘Comparison of rates of enzymatic oxidation of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin G1, and sterigmatocystin and activities of the epoxides in forming guanyl-N7 adducts and inducing different genetic responses', Chemical Research and Toxicology, Vol 2, pp 114–122.
7.
BennettG. A.WicklowD. T.CaldwellR. W., and SmalleyE. B. (1988), ‘Distribution of trichothecenes and Zearelenone in Fusarium graminearum: Rotted corn ears grown in a controlled environment’, Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, Vol 36, pp 639–642.
8.
BhatR. V.BeeduS. R.RamakrihnaY., and MunshiK. L. (1989), ‘Outbreak of trichothecene mycotoxicosis associated with consumption of mould-damaged wheat products in Kashmir Valley, India’, Lancet, Vol 1, pp 35–37.
9.
BilyA. C.ReidL. M.SavardM. E.ReddyR.BlackwellB. A.CampbellC. M.ArnasonJ. T., and RegnaultC. (2004), ‘Analysis of Fusarium graminearum mycotoxins in different biological matrices by LC/MC’, Mycopathologia, Vol 157, pp 117–126.
10.
BluhmB. H.CousinM. A., and WoloshukC. P. (2004), ‘Multiplex real-time PCR detection of fumonisin-producing and trichothecenes in grains using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry’, Journal of Food Protection, Vol 67, pp 536–543.
11.
BlumenthalC. Z. (2004), ‘Production of toxic metabolites in Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae and Trichoderma reesei: Justification of mycotoxin testing in food grade enzyme preparations derived from the three fungi’, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, Vol 39, pp 214–228.
12.
BowmanW. C., and RandM. J. (1990), Textbook of Pharmacology, 2 ed, Blackwell Scientific Publications, London.
13.
BradburnN.CokerR. D., and BlundenG. (1994), ‘The aetiology of turkey X disease’, Phytochemistry, Vol 35, p 817.
14.
BresinskyA., and BeslH. (1990), A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Fungi: A Handbook for Pharmacists, Doctors, Woolfe, London.
15.
CokerR. D. (1979), ‘Aflatoxin: Past, present and future’, Tropical Science, Vol 21, pp 143–162.
16.
CokerR. D. (1998), ‘The design of sampling plans for the determination of mycotoxins in foods and feeds’, in SinhaK. K., and Bhatnagar, eds, Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, Marcell Dekker, New York.
17.
CokerR. D. (1999), ‘The chemical detoxification of aflatoxin-contaminated animal feed’, in WatsonD. H., ed, Natural Toxicants in Foods, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield.
18.
CottyP. J.BaymanP.EgelD. S., and EliasK. S. (1994), ‘Agriculture, aflatoxins and Aspergillus’, in PowellK. A., ed, The Genus Aspergillus, Plenum Press, New York, pp 1–27.
19.
CoulombeR. A.SheltonD. W.SinnhuberR. O., and NixonJ. E. (1982), ‘Comparative mutagenicity of aflatoxins using a Samonella/trout hepatic enzyme activation system’, Carcinogenesis, Vol 3, pp 1261–1264.
20.
DaleziosJ. L.HsiehD. P. H., and WoganG. N. (1973), ‘Excretion and metabolism of orally administered aflatoxin B1 by rhesus monkeys', Food and Cosmetic Toxicology, Vol 11, pp 605–616.
21.
DellM. P. K. (1993), ‘The development of methods for the quality control of foodstuffs contaminated with mycotoxin’, PhD thesis, Council for National Academic Awards.
22.
DesjardinsA. E., and HohmT. M. (1997), ‘Mycotoxins in plant pathogenesis’, Molecular Plant–Microbe Interaction, Vol 10, pp 147–152.
23.
DingY.BojjaR. S., and DuL. (2004), ‘Fum3p, a 2-Ketoglutarate-Dependent Dioxygenase required for C-5 hydroxylation of fuminisins in Fusarium verticillioides’, Applied Environmental Microbiology, Vol 70, pp 1931–1943.
24.
DowdP. F. (1989), ‘Toxicity and some interactions of some Fusarium graminearum metabolites to caterpillars', Mycopathologia, Vol 81, pp 646–650.
25.
EnglerK. (1996), ‘Development and assessment of a yeast bioassay for the detection of mycotoxins’, PhD thesis, University of Greenwich, London.
26.
EssigmannJ. M.CroyR. G.BennettR. A., and WoganG. N. (1982), ‘Metabolic activation of aflatoxin B1: Patterns of DNA adduct formation, removal, and excretion in relation to carcinogenesis', Drug Metabolism Review, Vol 13, pp 581–602.
27.
FazekasB.TarA. K., and Zomborszky-KovacsM. (2001), ‘Ochratoxin A contamination of cereal grains and coffee in Hungary in the year 2001’, Acta Veterenia Hungaria, Vol 50, pp 177–188.
28.
FuchsR.RadieB.CeovicS.SostaricB., and HultK. (1991), ‘Human exposure to ochratoxin A’, in CastegnaroM.PlestinaR., and BartschH., eds, Mycotoxins, Endemic Nephropathy and Urinary Tract Tumours, IARC Scientific Publications No 115, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, pp 131–134.
29.
GarnerR. C.MartinC. N.SmithJ. R. L.ColesB. F., and TolsonM. R. (1979), ‘Comparison of aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin G1 binding to cellular macromolecules in vitro, in vivo and after peracid oxidation: Characterization of the major nucleic acid adducts', Chemical and Biological Interactions, Vol 26, pp 57–73.
30.
HarrisL. J.DesjardinsA. E.PlattnerR. D.NicholsonP.ButlerG.YoungJ. C.WestonG.ProctorH. R., and HohnM. T. (1999), ‘Possible role of trichothecene mycotoxins in virulence of Fusarium graminearum on maize’, Plant Disease, Vol 56, pp 954–961.
31.
HsiehD. P. H., and WongJ. J. (1994), ‘Pharmacokinetics and excretion of aflatoxins’, in EatonD. L., and GroopmanJ. D., eds, The Toxicology of Aflatoxins: Human Health, Veterinary and Agricultural Significance, Academic Press, New York, pp 73–88.
32.
HsuehC. C.LiuY., and FreundM. S. (1999), ‘Indirect electrochemical detection of type-B trichothecene mycotoxins’, Annals of Chemistry, Vol 71, pp 4070–4080.
33.
HusseinH. S., and BraselJ. M. (2001), ‘Toxicity, metabolism and impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals’, Toxicology, Vol 167, pp 101–134.
34.
IARC (1993), ‘Toxins derived from Fusarium moniliforme. Fumonisins B1 and B2 and Fusarin C’, IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol 56, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, pp 445–446.
35.
KrishnamachariK. A. V.BhatR. V.NagarajanV., and TilakT. B. G. (1975), ‘Hepatitis due to aflatoxicosis, an outlook in western India’, Lancet, Vol I, pp 1061–1063.
36.
Kuiper-GoodmanT. (1991), ‘Risk assessment to humans of mycotoxins in animal-derived food products’, Veterinary and Human Toxicology, Vol 33, pp 325–332.
37.
LaceyJ. (1991), ‘Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in growing and conserved forage crops’, in SmithJ. E., and HendersonR. S., eds, Mycotoxins and Animal Foods, CRC Press, London, pp 363–397.
38.
LubulwaA. S. G., and DaviesJ. S. (1994), ‘Estimating the social costs of the impacts of fungi and aflatoxins in maize and peanuts’, in HighleyE.WrightE. J., and ChampsB. R., eds, Stored Product Protection, Proceedings of the 6th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection, pp 1017–1042.
39.
LugauskasA., and StakenieneJ. (2002), ‘Toxin producing micromycetes on fruit, berries, and vegetables’, Annals of Agriculture and Environmental Medicine, Vol 9, pp 183–187.
40.
MiccoC.AmbruzziM. A.MiragliaM., and BenelliL. (1991), ‘Contamination of human milk with ochratoxin A’, in CastegnaroM.PlestinaR., and Bartsch, eds, Mycotoxins, Endemic Nephropathy and Urinary Tract Tumours, IARC Scientific Publication No 115, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, pp 105–108.
41.
MillerJ. D. (1995), ‘Fungi and mycotoxins in grain: Implications for stored product research’, Journal of Stored Product Research, Vol 31, pp 1–16.
42.
NaikerS., and OdhavB. (2004), ‘Mycotic keratitis: Profile of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins’, Mycoses, Vol 47, pp 50–56.
43.
NairM. G. (1998), ‘Fumonisins and human health’, Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, Vol 18, pp 47–52.
44.
ParkD. L.LeeL. S.PriceR. L., and PohlandA. E. (1988), ‘Review of the decontamination of aflatoxins by ammoniation: Current status and regulation’, Journal of Association of Official Analytical Chemistry, Vol 71, pp 685–703.
45.
PeplinskiA. I.EckhoffS. R.WarnerK., and AndersonR. A. (1983), ‘Physical testing and dry milling of high-moisture corn preserved with ammonia while drying in ambient air’, Cereal Chemistry, Vol 60, pp 442–445.
46.
PestkaJ. J., and BondyG. S. (1990), ‘Alteration of immune function following dietary mycotoxin exposure’, Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, Vol 68, pp 1009–1016.
47.
PittJ. L. (1996), ‘What are mycotoxins?’Australian Mycotoxins Newsletter, Vol 7, pp 1–4.
48.
PittJ. J., and RockingB. F. (1991), ‘Water relations of Aspergillus flavus and closely related species', Journal of Food Protection, Vol 58, pp 86–90.
49.
PittJ. L., and MiscambleB. F. (1995), ‘Water relations of Aspergillus flavus and closely related species', Journal of Food Protection, Vol 58, pp 86–90.
50.
PreluskyD. B.HamiltonR. M., and TrenholmH. L. (1989), ‘Transmission of residues to eggs following long-term administration of 14C labelled deoxynivalenol to laying hens’, Poultry Science, Vol 68, pp 744–748.
51.
RamsdellH. S., and EatonD. L. (1990), ‘Species susceptibility to aflatoxin B1 carcinogenesis: Comparative kinetics of microsomal biotransformation’, Cancer Research, Vol 50, pp 615–620.
52.
RheederJ. P.MarasasW. F. O.ThielP. G.SydenhamE. W., and van SchalkwykD. J. (1992), ‘Fusarium moniliforme and fumonisins in corn in relation to human esophageal cancer in Transkei’, Phytopathology, Vol 82, pp 353–357.
53.
SchoenhardG. L.HendricksJ. D.NixonJ. E.LeeD. J.WalesJ. H.SinhuberR. O., and PawlowskiN. E. (1981), ‘Aflatoxicol-induced hepatocellular carcinoma in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and synergistic effects of cyclopropenoid fatty acids', Cancer Research, Vol 41, pp 1011–1014.
54.
SharmaR. P., and KimY. W. (1991), ‘Trichotecenes’, in SharmaR. P., and SalunkheD. K., eds, Mycotoxins and Phytoalexins, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, p 339.
55.
SudakinD. L. (2003), ‘Trichothecenes in the environment: Relevance to human health’, Toxicology Letters, Vol 143, pp 97–107.
56.
TakayukiS., and BjeldanesL. F. (1993), Introduction to Food Toxicology, Academic Press Inc, San Diego, CA.
57.
Van EgmondH. P. (1989), ‘Current situation on regulation for mycotoxins. Overview of tolerances and status of standard methods of sampling and analysis’, Food Additive Contaminants, Vol 6, pp 139–188.
58.
WHO (1991), ‘Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants’, in 37th Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Technical Report Series No 806, World Health Organization, Geneva, pp 28–31.
59.
WildC. P., and HallA. J. (2000), ‘Primary prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in developing countries’, Mutation Research, Vol 462, pp 381–393.
60.
WilsonD. M.MubatanhemaW., and JurjevicZ. (2002), ‘Biology and ecology of mycotoxicogeni Aspergillus species as related to economic and health concerns', Advances in Experimental Medical Biology, Vol 504, pp 3–17.
61.
WongZ. A., and HsiehD. P. H. (1978), ‘Aflatoxicol: Major aflatoxin B1 metabolite in rat plasma’, Science, Vol 200, pp 325–327.
