PURPOSE: To evaluate the mediation effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between secure attachment and employment status of people with spinal cord injuries (SCI).
DESIGN: Quantitative descriptive research design using logistic regression, multiple regression, and correlational techniques.
METHODS: One hundred and ninety individuals with SCI were recruited from the Canadian Paraplegic Association. Only individuals ages between 25–54 years (prime working age) were selected for this study.
RESULTS: Secure attachment and self-efficacy were significantly related to employment status. Self-efficacy was found to be a significant mediator of the relationship between secure attachment and employment status.
CONCLUSION: Results provide support for the importance of building a strong working alliance and helping individuals with SCI in the professional practice of rehabilitation counseling.
AinsworthM. D. S., BleharM., WatersE., & WallS. (1978), Patterns of attachment: Observations in the strange situation and at home. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
2.
AmiriF., BanijamaliS., AhadiH., & AhadiY. (2013). The relationship between attachment style and self-efficacy beliefs with regard to sex. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 3(1), 699–704.
3.
BanduraA. (2006). Going global with social cognitive theory: From prospect to paydirt. In DonaldsonS. I.,
BergerD. E., & PezdekK. (Eds.). The rise of applied psychology: New frontiers and rewarding careers (pp. 53–79). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
4.
BanduraA. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
5.
BanduraA. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
6.
BaronR. M., & KennyD. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.
7.
BlakeJ.,
BrooksJ.,
GreenbaumH., &
ChanF. (in press). Attachment and Employment Outcomes for People with Spinal Cord Injury: The Intermediary Role of Hope.
8.
BlusteinD. L., PreziosoM. S., & SchultheissD. P. (1995). Attachment theory and career development current status and future directions. The Counseling Psychologist, 23(3), 416–432.
9.
BordinE. (1979). The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 16, 252–260.
10.
BowlbyJ. (1951). Maternal care and mental health. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 3, 355–534.
11.
BowlbyJ. (1969), Attachment and loss volume one: Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.
12.
BowlbyJ. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.
13.
BradleyD. E., & RobertsJ. A. (2004). Self-employment and job satisfaction: Investigating the role of self-efficacy, depression, and seniority. Journal of Small Business Management, 42(1), 37–58.
14.
Brenk-FranzK., StraussB., TieslerF., FleischhauerC., CiechanowskiP., SchneiderN., & GensichenJ. (2015). The Influence of Adult Attachment on Patient Self-Management in Primary Care-The Need for a Personalized Approach and Patient-Centred Care. PloS one, 10(9), e0136723.
15.
CaoY., KrauseJ. S., SaundersL. L., & BinghamW. (2014). Household income and subjective well-being after spinal cord injury: A longitudinal study. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation, 20(1), 40–47.
16.
ChanY. C., ChanF., DitchmanN., PhillipsB., & ChouC. C. (2013). Evaluating Snyder’s hope theory as a motivational model of participation and life satisfaction for individuals with spinal cord injury: A path analysis. Rehabilitation Research, Policy, & Education, 27, 171–185.
17.
ChanF., DaSilva CardosoE., & ChronisterJ. (Eds.). (2009). Understanding Psychosocial Adjustment to Chronic Illness and Disability: A Handbook for Evidence-Based Practitioners in Rehabilitation. New York: Springer Publishing.
18.
ChanF., ShawL. R., McMahonB. T., KochL., & StrauserD. (1997). A Model for Enhancing Rehabilitation Counselor-Consumer Working Relationships. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 41(2), 122–137.
ChouC. C., DitchmanN., PruettS. R., ChanF., & HunterC. (2009). Application of self-efficacy related theories in psychosocial interventions. Understanding Psychosocial Adjustment to Chronic Illness and Disability243–276.
21.
ChiuC. Y.,
ChanF.,
SharpS. E.,
DuttaA.,
HartmanE., &
BezyakJ. (in press). Employment as a health promotion intervention for persons with multiple sclerosis.
22.
CollinsN. L., & ReadS. J. (1990). Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(4), 644–663.
23.
DaviesK. A., MacfarlaneG. J., McBethJ., MorrissR., & DickensC. (2009). Insecure attachment style is associated with chronic widespread pain. Pain, 143(3), 200–205.
24.
DavilaJ., RamsayM., StroudC. B., & SteinbergS. (2005). Attachment as vulnerability to the development of psychopathology. In
HankinB. L. &
AbelaJ. R. Z. (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability-stress perspective (pp. 215–242). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
25.
ElliottT. R., WittyT. E., HerrickS. M., & HoffmanJ. T. (1991). Negotiating reality after physical loss: Hope, depression, and disability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 608–613.
26.
FraleyR. C., VicaryA. M., BrumbaughC. C., & RoismanG. I. (2011). Patterns of stability in adult attachment: An empirical test of two models of continuity and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5), 974–992.
27.
GickM. L., & SiroisF. M. (2010). Insecure attachment moderates women’s adjustment to inflammatory bowel disease severity. Rehabilitation Psychology, 55(2), 170–179.
28.
HamptonN. Z. (2000). Self-efficacy and quality of life in people with spinal cord injuries in China. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 43(2), 66–74.
29.
HazanC., & ShaverP. R. (1990). Love and work: An attachment-theoretical perspective. Journal of Personality and social Psychology, 59(2), 270.
30.
HayesA. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs,, 76(4), 408–420.
31.
HayesA. F. (2013). A regression based approach.: The. Introduction to moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression based approach. New York: Guilford Press.
32.
HazanC., & ShaverP. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524.
33.
HazanC., & ShaverP. R. (1990). Love and work: An attachment-theoretical perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(2), 270–280.
34.
HirschiA. (2012). Callings and work engagement: Moderated mediation model of work meaningfulness, occupational identity, and occupational self-efficacy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(3), 479–485.
35.
HoutenvilleA. J., BruckerD. L., & LauerE. A. (2014). Annual compendium of disability statistics: 2014. Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire, Institute on Disability.
36.
HoweD. (2006). Disabled children, parent-child interaction and attachment. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 95–106.
37.
HuebnerR. A., ThomasK. R., & BervenN. L. (1999). Attachment and interpersonal characteristics of college students with and without disabilities. Rehabilitation Psychology, 44, 85–103.
38.
JonesG. C., & CrewsJ. E. (2013). Health disparities among workers and nonworkers with functional limitations: Implications for improving employment in the United States. Disability and Rehabilitation, 35(17), 1479–1490.
39.
JoplinJ. R., NelsonD. L., & QuickJ. C. (1999). Attachment behavior and health: Relationships at work and home. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(6), 783–796.
40.
KanferR., WanbergC. R., & KantrowitzT. M. (2001). Job search and employment: A personality–motivational analysis and meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(5), 837–855.
41.
KrauseJ. S., & AnsonC. A. (1996). Employment after spinal cord injury: Relation to selected participant characteristics. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 77(8), 737–743.
42.
KrauseJ. S., TerzaJ. V., ErtenM., FochtK. L., & DismukeC. E. (2012). Prediction of postinjury employment and percentage of time worked after spinal cord injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 93(2), 373–375.
43.
LeeA., & HankinB. L. (2009). Insecure attachment, dysfunctional attitudes, and low self-esteem predicting prospective symptoms of depression and anxiety during adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38(2), 219–231.
44.
LiuS., HuangJ. L., & WangM. (2014). Effectiveness of job search interventions: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1009–1041.
45.
LopezF. G., MauricioA., GormleyB., SimkoT., & BergerE. (2001). Adult attachment orientations and college student distress: The mediating role of problem coping styles. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 459–464.
46.
LunenburgF. C. (2011). Self-efficacy in the workplace: Implications for motivation and performance. International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, 14(1), 1–6.
47.
LuthansF. (2002a). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 695–706.
48.
LuthansF. (2002b). Positive organizational behavior: Developing and maintaining psychological strengths. Academy of Management Executive, 15, 57–72.
49.
LuthansF., YoussefC. M., & AvolioB. J. (2007). Psychological capital: Investing and developing positive organizational behavior. In
NelsonD. & CooperC. L. (Eds.), Positive organizational behavior: Accentuating the positive at work (pp. 9–24). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
50.
MariniI., LeeG. K., ChanF., ChapinM., & RomeroM. (2008). Vocational rehabilitation service patterns related to successful employment outcomes of persons with spinal cord injury. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 28(1), 1–13.
51.
MiddletonJ. W., TateR. L., & GeraghtyT. J. (2003). Self-Efficacy and Spinal Cord Injury: Psychometric Properties of a New Scale. Rehabilitation Psychology, 48(4), 281–288.
52.
MikulincerM., & OrbachI. (1995). Attachment styles and repressive defensiveness: The accessibility and architecture of affective memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(5), 917–925.
O’SullivanD., StrauserD. R., & WongA. W. (2012). Five-factor model of personality, work behavior self-efficacy, and length of prior employment for individuals with disabilities an exploratory analysis. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 55(3), 156–165.
55.
OttomanelliL., & LindL. (2009). Review of critical factors related to employment after spinal cord injury: Implications for research and vocational services. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine, 32(5), 503–531.
56.
PonizovskyA. M., ArbitmanM., Baumgarten-KatzI., & GrinshpoonA. (2014). Attachment styles, quality of life and service satisfaction outcomes in people with schizophrenia in Israel. Journal of Schizophrenia Research, 1–9.
57.
PreacherK. J., & HayesA. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.
58.
RegenoldM., ShermanM. F., & FenzelM. (1999). Getting back to work: Self-efficacy as a predictor of employment outcome. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 22(4), 361–367.
59.
RichardsD. A., & SchatA. C. (2011). Attachment at (not to) work: Applying attachment theory to explain individual behavior in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(1), 169–182.
60.
RobertsJ. E., GotlibI. H., & KasselJ. D. (1996). Adult attachment security and symptoms of depression: The mediating roles of dysfunctional attitudes and low self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 310–320.
61.
RossiP., Di LorenzoG., MalpezziM. G., Di LorenzoC., CesarinoF., FaroniJ., ... TroisiA. (2005). Depressive symptoms and insecure attachment as predictors of disability in a clinical population of patients with episodic and chronic migraine. Headache, 45(5), 561–570.
62.
RuckerD. D., PreacherK. J., TormalaZ. L., & PettyR. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(6), 359–371.
63.
Sela-KaufmanM., RassovskyY., AgranovE., LeviY., & VakilE. (2013). Premorbid personality characteristics and attachment style moderate the effect of injury severity on occupational outcome in traumatic brain injury: Another aspect of reserve. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35(6), 584–595.
64.
ShalR. S., AbdekhodaeeM. S., kafi MasolehS. M., & SalehiI. (2011). Survey the between attachment style and general self efficacy with homesickness among college students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 538–541.
65.
StajkovicA. D., & LuthansF. (1988). Self-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 240–261.
66.
WeiM., RussellD. W., & ZakalikR. A. (2005). Adult attachment, social self-efficacy, self disclosure, loneliness, and subsequent depression for freshman college students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(4), 602–614.
67.
WilsonL., CatalanoD., SungC., PhillipsB., ChouC. C., ChanY. C., & ChanF. (2013). Attachment, social support, and coping as psychosocial correlates of happiness in people with spinal cord injuries. Rehabilitation Research, Policy, & Education, 27, 186–205.
WrightB. A. (1983). Physical disability: A psychosocial approach. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
70.
WrightL. J., ZautraA. J., & GoingS. (2008). Adaptation to early knee osteoarthritis: The role of risk, resilience, and disease severity on pain and physical functioning. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 36(1), 70–80.
71.
YokotaniK. (2011). Avoidant attachment style indicates job adaptation of people with high functional autistic spectrum disorders. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities291–296.
